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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 

Water-Supply Paper 275 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES 



OF 



ESTANCIA VALLEY, NEW MEXICO 

WITH NOTES ON 

GROUND-WATER CONDITIONS IN ADJACENT PARTS OF 
CENTRAL NEW MEXICO 



BY 



OSCAR E. MEINZER 





WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1911 




Book— ji <* r) 4 



z* 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water- Supply Paper 275 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES 



OF 



ESTANOIA VALLEY, NEW MEXICO 



WITH NOTES ON 



GROUND-WATER CONDITIONS IN ADJACENT PARTS OF 
CENTRAL NEW MEXICO 



BY 



OSCAR E. MEINZER 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1911 






LIBRARY OF CONG 

MAY26192! 



CONTENTS. 



Geology and Water Resources of Estancia Valley. 

Page. 

Introduction 7 

Location and area 7 

Geographic relations 8 

Development 8 

Field work 8 

Physiography 8 

Mountains, hills, and mesas 8 

Alluvial slopes and arroyos 10 

Ancient lake bed 10 

Salt basins and clay hills 11 

Geology 11 

Rock formations m 11 

Metamorphic and igneous rocks 11 

Carboniferous rocks 12 

Cretaceous rocks ' 15 

Valley fill : 16 

Age and character 16 

Work of the streams 17 

Distribution of the alluvial deposits 17 

Origin of the alluvial deposits 17 

Character of the alluvial deposits 17 

Work of the lake . 18 

Size of the lake •. '. 18 

Shore features 19 

Cliffs and terraces 19 

Beach ridges 19 

Spits 20 

Bars 20 

Estuaries 21 

Stages indicated by shore lines 21 

Size of lake and of shore features 22 

Effect of prevailing winds 23 

Lake deposits 23 

Beach material 23 

Stratified sediments 23 

Work of the wind 25 

Sand dunes 25 

Salt basins and clay hills 25 

Soils 27 

Red loamy soils 27 

Sandy soils 28 

Alkali soils 28 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Climate 30 

Rainfall 30 

Evaporation 32 

Temperature 32 

Wind 33 

Relation of climate to agriculture 34 

Water 34 

Source and disposal 34 

Evaporation from the surface 34 

Mountain springs and streams 35 

Floods 35 

Underflow 35 

Overfilling of underground reservoir 35 

Leakage of the basin 37 

Summary 38 

Head 38 

Ground-water table 38 

Methods of investigation 38 

Relation of ground-water table to the surface 39 

Shallow-water belt on the west side 39 

Influence of the salt basins 40 

Relation of ground-water table to the underflow 41 

Relation of ground-water table to supply and disposal 42 

Artesian conditions 42 

In the valley fill , 42 

In the rock formations 43 

Recovery of water 43 

Yield of wells in the valley fill 43 

Yield of wells in the rock formations 45 

Available quantity of ground water 46 

Quality 47 

Solids dissolved in water 47 

Methods of investigation '. 47 

Chlorine " 48 

Cause of salinity 50 

Sulphates , 51 

Carbonates and bicarbonates 52 

Bases 53 

Effects of dissolved solids 53 

Irrigation 54 

Storage of storm water 54 

Utilization of ground water 54 

Present development 54 

Possibilities of future development 55 

Proper type of irrigation systems 55 

Proper types of wells 55 

Gravity infiltration ditches 56 

•Cost of pumping 57 

Windmills 59 

Storage and distribution 60 

Value of crops 62 

Best use of water 63 

The alkali problem 64 

Summary 66 



CONTENTS. 5 

Page. 

Tables 67 

Depths to water 67 

Field assays of water 71 

Tests of water from railway wells 74 

Note on geographic names 74 

Ground-water Conditions in Parts of Central New Mexico. 

Reconnaissance in Encino Basin 75 

Location and area 75 

Physiography and geology *. 75 

Upland areas 75 

Ancient lake bed 76 

Lake sediments 76 

Shore features 77 

Salt basin and post-lacustrine wind deposits 78 

Prelacustrine wind deposits 79 

The map 80 

Soil 80 

Ground water 80 

Occurrence and head 80 

Quality 81 

Irrigation 82 

Reconnaissance in Pinos Wells Basin 83 

Physiography and geology 83 

Ground water 84 

Small intermediate basin 84 

Notes on wells at Vaughn 84 

Index '. 87 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 
Plate I. Map of Estancia Valley, showing physiography and Pleistocene and 

Recent geology 7 

II. A, " Gateway" through dike north of Estancia Valley; B, Canyon 

in Mesa Jumanes 8 

III. A, Lake flat; B, Mesa Jumanes, showing landsliding 10 

IV. A, Wind-deposited clay; B, Spit north of Lucia 20 

V. A, Gap in bar near Antelope Spring; B, Cliff forming ancient shore 

line near Antelope Spring 20 

VI. A and B, Cliff surrounding a salt basin; lake sediments overlain by 

wind-deposited clay 22 

VII. A, Lake sediments overlain by wind-deposited clay; B, Testing a 

well in Estancia 24 

VIII. A, Open well in lake sediments; B, Pumping plant and reservoir 24 

IX. A, Laguna Salina and its white incrustation of salt; B, A salt basin 

whose floor is temporarily covered with water 26 

X. A, Clay ridge bordering a salt basin; B, Typical clay-hill topography. . 26 
XI. Map of Estancia Valley, showing depth to ground water and quality 

of ground water 38 

XII. Reconnaissance geologic map of the ancient lake bed in the Encino 

basin, N. Mex 76 

XIII. A, Terrace on east side of ancient lake bed near Encino; B, Terrace 
on south side of ancient lake bed near Encino; C, Gap in ancient 

beach bar near Allen McGilleroy ranch 76 

XIV. A, Encino Salt Basin; B, Stratified lake sediments in Encino Salt 

Basin 76 

Figure 1. Map showing location of Estancia, Encino, and Pinos Wells basins. . 7 

2. Section of cliff surrounding salt basin 25 

3. Diagramatic sections of salt basins and clay hills in Estancia Valley. . 26 

4. Map showing the relation of topographic features to prevailing 

direction of wind 27 

5. Diagram showing relative amounts of rainfall at Estancia and 

Mountainair 32 

6. Section through Estancia showing the relation of the shallow water 

belt to the surface 40 

7. Diagram showing decrease of chlorine with increase in depth of the 

waters of the central area of Estancia Valley 50 

6 



PAPER 275 PLATE 1 




MAP OF ESTANCIA VALLEY. NEW MEXICO. SHOW ISO PHYSIOGRAPHY ASH PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT GEOLoi 
LEGEND 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCE „,»n,>l FORMATION „ T „ . 










Fi 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF ESTANCIA 
VALLEY, NEW MEXICO. 



By Oscar E. Meinzer. 



INTRODUCTION. 

LOCATION AND AREA. 



Estancia Valley lies near the geographic center of New Mexico, 
south of Santa Fe and east of Albuquerque. Its drainage basin 




105° 



100 Miles 



w, 



Estancia basin Encino basin Pinos Wells basin 

Figure l.— Map showing location of Estancia, Encino, and Pinos Wells basins. 

forms a depression with no outlet, having a maximum extent of about 
65 miles north and south and 40 miles east and west, and includes an 
area of about 2,000 square miles (fig. 1). 

7 



GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONS. 

On the west Estancia Valley is separated from Bio Grande Valley 
by a mountain wall ; on the east it is bordered by a maze of hills which 
divide it from the upland that slopes toward the Pecos Valley and 
from the Encino and Pinos Wells basins ; on the north it rises grad- 
ually until it ends abruptly as a plateau overlooking the valley of 
Galisteo Creek, which flows westward into the Eio Grande; on the 
southwest it is terminated by a mesa; and on the southeast, where it 
is hemmed in between the mesa and the hills, it is separated by a low 
divide from the Pinos' Wells Basin. 

DEVELOPMENT. 

This valley has long supported a sparse population. Nestled in 
the western foothills, remote from any city or railroad, the Mexican 
villages of Chilili, Tajique, Torreon, Manzano, and Punta de Agua 
have for generations led a peaceful but primitive existence, their in- 
habitants depending for a livelihood chiefly upon their flocks of sheep. 
Moreover, planted here and there upon the broad, level expanses of 
the valley proper are isolated establishments which have been the 
homes of independent and prosperous ranchers, most of whom are 
Mexicans. 

But within the past decade a great change has taken place. Two 
railways have been built — the New Mexico Central Railroad, which 
traverses the entire length of the valley, and the "Belen cut-off " of 
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, which crosses its southern 
part. Hundreds of homesteaders have come to take possession of the 
land, and eight villages have sprung up along the railways. 

FIELD WORK. 

Insufficient rainfall during recent years has caused crop failures and 
has created an urgent demand for an investigation of the feasibility 
of irrigating with ground water. In response to this demand, and for 
the purpose of classifying the land under the enlarged homestead act, 
an examination of the valley covering a period of six weeks was made 
by the writer in the summer of 1909. The time spent was not suffi- 
cient to make a complete investigation, hence attention was directed 
especially to the more practical phases of the problem. In August, 
1910, several days were spent in the Encino and Pinos Wells basins. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

MOUNTAINS, HILLS, AND MESAS. 

West of the valley is the Manzano Range, which extends for 30 
miles as an unbroken mountain wall and forms a sharp divide between 
the Estancia and Rio Grande basins. This range culminates in a 





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£fj %- 


WLiL,-i 




Wk 


mm 










K 










PHYSIOGRAPHY. 9 

series of peaks, the loftiest of which — such as Manzano Peak, Capillo 
Peak, and Mosca Peak — reach altitudes of more than 9,000 feet above 
sea level and more than 3,000 feet above the valley. The range sup- 
ports a forest of large pine trees, most of which are included in the 
Manzano National Forest, and along its eastern base is a broad, irregu- 
lar belt of foothills partly covered with smaller timber. 

At the northwest corner of Estancia Valley are South Mountain and 
the San Pedro Mountains, two isolated masses which include a number 
of peaks that reach altitudes of more than 8,000 feet above sea level. 
Between South Mountain and the north end of the Manzano Range, a 
distance of nearly 15 miles, the moutain wall is interrupted, the divide 
between the Estancia and Rio Grande basins here being formed by a 
more or less hilly upland tract through which the not yet completed 
railway from Moriarty to Albuquerque finds a low pass. 

North of the San Pedro Mountains is a still larger mountain mass, 
known as the Ortiz Mountains. North of the Manzano Range and 
separated from it by Tijeras Canyon is another lofty range, known 
as the Sandia Mountains. Both Ortiz and Sandia mountains lie 
entirely outside the Estancia Basin. 

The valley is bordered on the northeast by a mesa whose margin is 
dissected into rugged and fantastic erosion forms. Canada Colorada 
(Red Canyon), one of the largest gorges that has been carved out of 
this mesa, is picturesque and imposing. Farther south are the Hills 
of Pedernal, whose somber gray hue contrasts strongly with the vivid 
colors of the escarpment of the mesa and the Red Canyon. Back of 
these hills, outside of the Estancia drainage basin, stands Pedernal 
Mountain. The hills that inclose the valley on the southeast are 
lower and more subdued. 

From the center of the valley northward the surface rises gently 
up to a point where the plain ends abruptly in an escarpment, so 
that, seen from the north, Estancia Valley is a mesa which forms the 
south boundary of the Galisteo Creek drainage basin. Here the trib- 
utaries of the creek are actively eroding and are thereby gradually 
shifting the divide southward. A short distance north is a huge 
igneous dike, which stands in prominent relief as a result of the 
denudation of the softer rocks through which it projects. This dike 
has evidently hindered the erosive attack on the north end of Estancia 
Valley. The gap in the dike through which the drainage passes has 
long been utilized as an approach to Estancia Valley, and the New 
Mexico Central Railroad now enters through this " Gateway." 
(See PL II, A.) 

On the southwest the valley is terminated abruptly by the Mesa 
Jumanes, whose escarpment, 500 feet high, forms an imposing phys- 
iographic feature (Pis. II, B; III, B) . Between the Mesa Jumanes and 
the Manzano Range is a pass through which the Atchison, Topeka & 
Santa Fe Railway finds an exit westward. 



10 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

To the southeast the valley becomes constricted between the Mesa 
Jumanes, which forms its southwestern flank, and the hills which bor- 
der it on the northeast. This constricted belt extends a considera- 
ble distance and eventually opens into the Pinos Wells Basin. The 
New Mexico Central Railroad passes through it and leaves the Estancia 
drainage basin at probably the lowest point on the basin's rim. 

ALLUVIAL SLOPES AND ARROYOS. 

A gently sloping plain, formed by sediments washed out from the 
mountains, extends from the mountainous border toward the flat 
center. The gradient of this plain is not great, but is sufficient to be 
perceptible, and in general it decreases toward the center of the 
valley. Over wide tracts the surface is exceedingly even, but, taken 
as a whole, the evenness is broken by many irregularities, most of 
which can be grouped into two classes — rock hills and arroyos. 

At a number of localities isolated masses of hard rock project prom- 
inently above the smooth plain, which surrounds them almost as a 
sea surrounds a rocky island. One of the most conspicuous of these 
masses is the unique butte known as Cerrito del Lobo. 

The arroyos, or " draws," constitute an important feature of this 
part of the valley. Most of them have their origin in canyons that 
debouch from the mountainous border, whence they traverse the 
sloping plain, all converging toward the center of the valley. They 
have no great tendency to join each other, but many of them con- 
tinue in straight and nearly parallel Gourses for long distances. In 
general they are deepest near the mountains, where the largest may 
be bordered by impressive cliffs nearly or quite a hundred feet in 
height, and become shallower toward the basin until ultimately they 
disappear upon the central flat. Most of them are broad, several 
being more than a mile wide. Their flat bottoms are rarely trenched 
by gullies except in the upper courses, for they are stream channels 
rather than valleys through which stream channels meander. Gen- 
erally speaking, they carry no permanent streams, but form avenues 
for the escape of storm waters, and are built on a scale commensurate 
with the volume of the torrential floods which they must periodically 
accommodate. These floods usually disappear before they reach the 
central flat, and in disappearing they leave the sediment with which 
they were laden. Thus the arroyo bottoms are at present being built 
up rather than cut down. 

ANCIENT LAKE BED. 

The central portion of the valley is for the most part flat (PL III, A), 
and there is good evidence that it was once the bed of a lake, a fact 
which has been noted by Keyes in a brief paper on "Ephemeral 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 275 PLATE 




A. LAKE FLAT. 
See page 1 0. 





j 


HP 




HP-' 





U. MESA JUMANES, SHOWING LANDSLIDING. 

See page 1 3. 



GEOLOGY. 11 

Lakes/' 1 in which he states that "the Sandoval bolson, south of 
Santa Fe, contains traces of a comparatively recent lake of consider- 
able size." At the margin of this ancient lake bed are beach ridges 
and other shore features, which, although not obtrusive, are distinct, 
and occur on all sides at the same vertical horizon. (See Pis. IV, B; 
V, A and B; XIII, G.) The belt within which shore features exist 
(which will be designated the " littoral zone") forms the inner bound- 
ary of the " alluvial slopes" and the outer boundary of the "lake 
flat." In Plate I the littoral zone and the lake flat are represented 
as occupying about 180 square miles each, but it should be understood 
that the boundary between these two areas is very arbitrarily drawn. 
For the sake of convenience, though at the sacrifice of logical arrange- 
ment, the shore features are described under the heading "Geology." 

SALT BASINS AND CLAY HILLS. 

Although most of the central area of the valley is flat, one portion, 
forming a region of considerable extent (roughly estimated as 85 
square miles), contains irregular clay hills associated with sharply 
bordered depressions containing salty mud flats, the whole forming a 
strange labyrinth (Pis. VI, IX, and X), the full discussion of which 
will be found under the heading "Geology." 

GEOLOGY. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

METAMORPHIC AND IGNEOUS ROCKS. 

Manzano Range. — The core of the Manzano Range consists of a 
complex of schists and quartzites, with associated masses of granite 
and other igneous formations. These rocks are supposed to have 
been brought to their present elevated position by a grand faulting 
movement near the close of the Cretaceous period. Because of their 
resistant character and nearly vertical dip they form sharp ridges 
and peaks. 

The east side. — On the east side of the central. and southern por- 
tions of the valley igneous and metamorphic rocks are also exposed. 
Pedernal Mountain, which lies in the northeast part of T. 7 N., 
II . 12 E., consists of flint-like quartzite in which considerable schis- 
tosity has been developed. The Hills of Pedernal lie west of this 
mountain and form a belt several miles long (chiefly in T. 7 N.) 
consisting of low but rugged peaks that rise abruptly above the 
level table-land that borders them on the north and the undulating 
upland on the south. Like Pedernal Mountain, they consist mainly 
of quartzite. They have been described as formed "by an uplift 
of quartz-bearing rock, the metamorphism produced by this intru- 

iKeyes, C. R., Ephemeral lakes: Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 16, 1903, p. 377. 



12 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

sion being evidenced by a broad band of hornblende schist along 
the western base of the hills." x They appear to belong to the same 
formation as the schists and quartzites in the Manzano Range and 
probably have similar structural relations to the contiguous rocks. 

Cerrito del Lobo, the previously mentioned isolated butte in the 
eastern part of the valley, is an outlier of the same quartzite for- 
mation. Across it, with a north-south trend, runs a breccia zone 
that has been weathered more rapidly than the quartzite through 
which it passes, thus giving the butte a bilobate profile that can 
be seen miles away. This bilobate feature also characterizes some 
of the Hills of Pedernal. 

South of the Hills of Pedernal the eastern wall of the basin is 
formed by a broad, undulating upland, which is for the most part 
grass-covered, but in which red granite is exposed at numerous 
points and schist and quartzite are found. These rocks have also 
been encountered in wells. 

The northwest side. — South Mountain and the San Pedro Moun- 
tains, as well as the Ortiz and other mountains to the north, consist 
of cores of igneous rock supposed to be laccoliths formed by great 
intrusions of lava near the close of the Cretaceous period. 2 The 
dike through which the " Gateway" passes (PL II, A) is a member 
of this great intrusive system. 

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 

Outcrops on the west side. — A formation consisting of thick beds 
of massive gray limestone with a few relatively unimportant layers 
of sandstone and shale extends eastward from the metamorphic and 
igneous rocks of the Manzano Range, forming a rugged foothill belt. 
In general, it dips gently away from the mountains and passes 
beneath younger strata. In Abo Canyon, which cuts across the 
low southern end of the Manzano Range, west of Mountainair, 
G. B. Richardson, who in 1905 made a reconnaissance along the 
line of the Belen cut-off, observed a thickness of about 500 feet, 
mostly of massive limestone, containing abundant Carboniferous 
fossils at some horizons. The formation is also well exposed in 
the canyons back of the village of Manzano and elsewhere. 

Red beds several hundred feet thick, consisting chiefly of fine- 
grained sandstone with some shale, occur farther east and evidently 
lie above the limestone. They were observed by Richardson in the 
vicinity of Abo Canyon in a north-south escarpment and are exposed 
farther north in a similar position and for several miles form the 
south bluff of Arroyo Mesteflo (Manzano Draw). 

i Johnson, D. W., Notes of a geological reconnaissance in eastern Valencia County,' N. Mex.: Am. 
Geologist, vol. 29, 1902, p. 87. 

2 Johnson, D. W., Geology of the Cerrillos Hills, N. Mex.: School of Mines Quart., vol. 24, 1903, 
pp. 463-471. 



GEOLOGY. 



13 



South of Willard (SE. \ sec. 31, T. 4 N., R. 9 E.) the escarpment 
of Mesa Jumanes shows the following succession of essentially hori- 
zontal strata: 

Section in escarpment of Mesa Jumanes. 

Feet. 

Limestone, dark gray 50 

Sandstone, gray, or buff, friable , 300 

Sandstone, etc., red 10 

Gypsum 100 

Talus. 

There is good evidence that this series lies stratigraphically above 
the red beds exposed along Arroyo Mesteno and elsewhere. Its age 
is fixed by several species of upper Carboniferous fossils found by 
Richardson in the capping limestone. 1 

Mesa Jumanes is in places bordered by chaotic heaps of talus that 
appear to have been formed by landslides that probably resulted from 
the basal position of the thick bed of soft gypsum (PL III, B). 

Well sections on the west side. 2 — The following data concerning 
wells bear on the occurrence of the above-described series in the west- 
ern part of Estancia Valley: 

Section of railway well at Mountainair. 
[Surface elevation: 6,486 feet above sea level.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Soil, clay, etc 

Clay and gravel 

Lime and dry gravel 

Red rock (i. e., hard red clay) 

Blue-gray shale 

Red rock (hard clay) 

Blue-gray shale rock (water at 295 feet) 
Red clay and small dry gravel. :." 



Feet. 
20 
20 
30 

110 
20 
83 

"27 
20 



Feet. 
20 
40 
70 
180 
200 
283 
310 
330 



Section of Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway well at Willard. 
[Surface elevation: 6,100 feet above sea level.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Light-red clay and gravel 

Coarse gravel, etc., containing water 

Light-red clay and gravel 

Coarse gravel, etc., containing water. 

(?) 

Sand, gravel, etc 

Red sand rock, entered 



Feet. 
35 

17 
78 
22 
31 
79 
128 



Feet. 
35 
52 
130 
152 
233 
312 
440 



1 Lee, Willis T., and Girty, G. H., The Manzano group of the Rio Grande valley, New Mexico: 
U. S. Geol. Survey No. 389, 1909, p. 21. 

2 Sections furnished by Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. 



Bull. 



14 

In the test well recently sunk 4 miles east of Estancia (SW. \ sec. 
10, T. 6 N., R. 9 E.) a formation described by the driller as u red 
hematite iron ore" was found between the depths of 225 and 525 feet, 
and red sandstone between 577 and 707 feet. 

In the well of H. C. Williams, 2 J miles south of Estancia (NE. \ sec. 
26, T. 6 N., R. 8 E.), soft gray sandstone was encountered between 
the depths of 233 and 303 feet, below which is red clay that was 
entered about 15 feet. 

Between Mountainair and Arroyo Mesteflo several wells penetrate 
dense red sandstone, while red shale is reported in numerous wells 
on the west side almost to the north end of the valley. 

Outcrops and well sections on east side. — A similar series of gypsum, 
red and buff sandstones, red shale, and gray limestones exists on the 
east side of the valley, and light-colored sandstone occurs in a suc- 
cession of low outcropping ridges north of Lucia for 15 miles. 

North of the Hills of Pedernal the east wall of the basin is formed 
by relatively level table-land, which is terminated on the southwest 
by an escarpment that appears, for at least a part of its extent, to 
follow a fault line. The formations that underlie the table-land are 
exposed in this escarpment and also in Canada Colorada (Red Canyon) 
and a number of smaller canyons. Wherever they were observed, 
they lie nearly horizontal and consist of beds that bear a general 
resemblance to the Carboniferous formations on the west side. In 
the vicinity of Canada Colorada there is a basal hard, gray lime- 
stone, overlain by a brownish red or chocolate-colored massive limy 
formation, upon which rests a second hard, gray limestone, some- 
what over 50 feet of strata belonging to the three formations being 
here exposed. Above the second limestone a thickness of considerably 
more than 100 feet of sandstone is exposed, while the cap rock, at the 
top of the cliff, consists of less than 5 feet of indurated gray limestone. 
The sandstone, which is prevailingly light yellow, is rather soft and 
weathers into fantastic, castellated forms. It shows abundant cross- 
bedding and ripple marks. Farther northeast is a series of soft red 
shale and sandstone, which is white at the top owing to the presence 
of limy material. This series is at least 100 feet thick and appears to 
rest on the cap rock that outcrops at the top of the escarpment. 

Immediately southwest of the escarpment and dipping sharply 
away from it is a series of rocks consisting of gypsum, red beds, and 
sandstone, somewhat resembling the series that outcrops in Mesa 
Jumanes. Between the escarpment and the valley proper is an 
upland belt in which there are numerous exposures of limestone, 
sandstone, and other formations. These strata generally slope 
toward the valley, but their dip differs greatly in different localities 
and in some places takes the opposite direction. In certain localities 
(as in sees. 26 and 27, T. 11 N., R. 10 E.) the dip differs greatly within 



GEOLOGY. 



15 



short distances, and fracturing and slicken-sided surfaces (as in SE. \ 
sec. 35, T. 10 N., R. 9 E.) also show that violent deformation has 
taken place in this region. 

At Lucia the following section is reported by the Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe Railway Co.: 

Section of railway well at Lucia. 
[Surface elevation, 6,177 feet above sea level.] 



Loose gravel 

Cemented gravel 

(?) 

Red sand 

Coarse gravel 

Lime gravel (water) 

Hard white sandrock 

Gray lime 

Red clay 

Lime and clay 

Gray lime 

Red clay 

Gray lime 

Lime and clay 

Gray lime 

Lime and clay 

Red clay (water) . 

Fine red sand '. 

Red clay 

Gray lime (water in vein) 

Dark-gray limestone 

Black shale, entered 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 

20 

(?) 

(?) 

10 

10 

5 

5 

5 

10 

5 

14 

26 

15 

15 

10 

15 

15 

25 

30 

5 

25 
5 



Depth. 



Feet. 



20 



(?) 



100 
110 

120 
125 
130 
135 
145 
150 
164 
190 
205 
220 
230 
245 
260 
285 
315 
320 
345 
350 



Immediately west of Lucia the railway cuts through light-colored 
sandstone, which also outcrops in this vicinity. In drilling the well 
of E. Moulton, in Lucia, this bed of sandstone was found between the 
depths of 16 and about 75 feet, below which was encountered a bed, 
about 15 feet thick, of soft white material (possibly gypsum), and 
then red clay and sand, in which the well ends. J. E. Pauley, a 
driller, reports other wells in the region north of Lucia which pass 
through light-colored sandstone and enter red clay and sand. 



CRETACEOUS ROCKS. 

In the region north of Estancia Valley there is exposed a thick 
series of Cretaceous strata, chiefly shale and sandstone, to which 
geologists have given considerable attention. It is represented in 
the areas bordering South Mountain and the San Pedro Mountains 
and in the north rim of Estancia Valley. It no doubt occurs beneath 
the north part of the valley, but there is no proof that it extends far 
south, for the section of the test well 4 miles east of Estancia and 
other well sections here given indicate that it is absent in at least 
much of the southern part of the valley. 
86378°— wsp 275—11 2 



16 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

VALLEY FILL. 
AGE AND CHARACTER. 

The hard rock floor of Estancia Valley is covered by deposits that 
may be grouped under the general term "valley fill." Nearly all 
these sediments originally came from the highlands that border the 
valley and are the product of thousands of years of weathering and 
denudation. The erosive processes which have carved the canyons 
and given form to the serrate peaks have at the same time supplied 
the material that has accumulated in the lowlands as the valley fill. 

These sediments derived from the mountains were chiefly washed 
by storm waters into the valley, where they lodged to form the 
deposits of the alluvial slopes, or were carried into the ancient lake, 
to settle quietly on its bottom or to be worked over by the waves. 
Some of these sediments have more recently been picked up and 
driven about by the wind. The deposits of salt in the salt basins 
are also of recent formation. The valley fill can therefore be classi- 
fied as follows : 

4. Precipitates from solution: Salt and gypsum beds. 

3. Wind deposits: Clay hills and sand dunes. 

2. Lake deposits: Stratified sediments and beach materials. 

1. Alluvial deposits. 

All these deposits are geologically young. In general, the oldest 
are the alluvial deposits, the next in age the lake deposits, and the 
youngest the wind deposits and salt beds. 

The age of the lake deposits is the most definitely fixed, for with- 
out doubt this lake was synchronous with Lake Bonneville, in Utah, 
and other ancient lakes of the arid West, which are unanimously 
and with good reason correlated with the cold, humid glacial period. 
The lake deposits may therefore be considered Pleistocene in age. 
The stratified sediments and beach materials are of about the same age, 
for at the time that the coarser materials along the beach were con- 
tinually being handled and rehandled by the waves finer sediments 
were settling quietly in areas more remote from the shore. 

The alluvial deposits have a much wider range in age. Part of 
them are coeval with the lake deposits, part are more recent; some, 
indeed, are very recent, but there is evidence that most of them were 
laid down in their present position before the advent of the lake, 
and hence belong chiefly to the late Tertiary or early Pleistocene. 

The wind deposits come within the late Pleistocene and Recent 
periods, for the dune sand was chiefly supplied by the lake and the 
clay deposits were all formed since the lake dried up. The sand has, 
on the whole, been buffeted about by the wind longer than the clay. 



GEOLOGY. 17 

WORK OF THE STREAMS. 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS. 

The bulk of the valley fill consists of alluvial deposits; that is, of 
materials laid down by the streams and not rehandled by any other 
agency. Such deposits underlie the broad belt comprising the allu- 
vial slopes (PI. I), are interbedded and intermingled with lake 
deposits in the littoral zone, as can be seen in many natural and 
artificial exposures, and probably occur at no great depths below the 
lake sediments in the lake flat and clay hill area. Their relation to 
the lake deposits can, however, be best understood after those 
deposits have been described. 

The alluvial material is much thicker in some localities than in 
others. If the interpretations of the well sections are correct, the 
total thickness of the valley fill is 312 feet at Willard, 225 feet in the 
test wells 4 miles east of Estancia, and 233 feet in H. C. Williams's 
well south of Estancia. L. Knight's deep well (in the NE. J sec. 1, 
T. 5 N., R. 8 E.) was carried to a depth of 240 feet without encoun- 
tering rock. In many parts of the valley, however, especially on its 
east and west margins, the alluvium is much thinner and rock crops 
out. 

ORIGIN OF THE ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS. 

The alluvial deposits were laid down by streams which were prob- 
ably intermittent and exceedingly irregular in their flow, depending 
then, as now, chiefly on the sudden and capricious visitations of heavy 
local storms. The work of these streams was correspondingly capri- 
cious and variable; at one place they eroded, only to deposit a little 
farther on the load which they thus picked up ; at one place they left 
behind coarse gravel, and at another they laid down only fine silt. 
The same locality was at different times subjected to all these condi- 
tions and, moreover, by the frequent changing of the courses of the 
streams, was at one time an arroyo and at another an interstream 
area. It is therefore not surprising that the alluvial deposits consist 
of heterogeneous beds which have little continuity or regularity, 
and that two wells in the same locality should have quite different 
sections. 

CHARACTER OF THE ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS. 

Most of the alluvial material consists of clay, with which are asso- 
ciated pebbles and bowlders of different sizes and composition. In 
general the pebbles and bowlders decrease both in size and abun- 
dance from the mountain borders, where bowlder beds with little 
or no clay may occur, toward the central portion of the valley, where 
clay virtually free from pebbles may be found. But though coarse 
materials form a larger proportion of the mass in the regions near 



18 GEOLOGY AND WATEES OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

the mountain than in the interior, yet well sections furnish abundant 
proof that beds of clean gravel and sand occur in the very heart of 
the valley. The composition of the pebbles depends on the kind of 
rocks that constitute the uplands and the resistance of these rocks to 
weathering and wear. On the whole pebbles of limestone are by 
far the most numerous, because this rock is well represented in the 
uplands, especially on the west, and is also resistant in character. 

The alluvial deposits present two or three types which differ in 
color, cementation, and position. The type most commonly encoun- 
tered near the surface has a pink hue. It is only slightly indurated, 
but contains so much cementing material that wells sunk into it 
require no curb. Pink deposits are shown at the north end of the 
valley, where they have been exposed by erosion on the tributaries 
of Galisteo Creek. The igneous bowlders and the direction of the 
cross-bedding in this locality show that the deposits were derived 
from higher ground to the north, which has since been eroded away. 

Deposits of a second type have a dull gray color and are cemented 
into a conglomerate, which is locally known as " concrete." Their 
gray color is due to the large amount of calcium carbonate and other 
cementing material they contain and also to the greater abundance 
in them of dark gray limestone pebbles. Gray conglomerate crops 
out in the cliff on the Mcintosh ranch, in the region west of Willard, 
and elsewhere, and is also found in many wells at levels below the 
pink alluvium. 

Deposits of a third type may be discriminated in which the cement- 
ing process has gone so far that the formation has lost the appearance 
of alluvium and has become a sort of massive concretionary limestone, 
or caliche. Limestone of this type lies near the surface over a large 
area in the vicinity of Cedarvale, at the southern extremity of the 
valley, and in the region south of Otto, where it forms a ridge through 
which the railway cuts (sec. 30, T. 10 N., R. 9 E.). 

WORK OF THE LAKE. 
SIZE OF THE LAKE. 

At its period of greatest extension the lake that occupied the central 
portion of the valley was about 35 miles long and 23 miles wide and 
had an area of about 450 square miles. Its maximum depth at this 
period was almost 150 feet, and its shore line, which nearly coincides 
with the 6,200-foot contour, was about 150 miles long. If this lake 
were now in existence the villages of Estancia and Willard would be 
100 feet under water; Mcintosh and Progresso would also be sub- 
merged; Moriarty and Lucia would virtually be lake ports; and 
Stanley, Mountainair, and Cedarvale would be inland towns. The 
higher ground which surrounded the lake has been explored every- 



GEOLOGY. - 19 

where, but no outlet channel has been found, and it is therefore 
certain that the lake had no outlet and that its water was salt. 

The theory of the existence of an ancient lake in the valley is based 
on the presence of shore features and lake sediments. 

SHORE FEATURES. 

Sea cliffs, terraces, beaches, beach ridges, spits, and bars are found 
within the littoral zone on all sides of the lake flat, at altitudes between 
6,100 and 6,200 feet above sea level. 

CLIEES AND TERRACES. 

A distinct sea cliff occurs southwest of Lucia (about NW. J, sec. 11, 
T. 4 N., R. 10 E.), and another cliff marks the exposed end of the land 
that projects eastward between Arroyo de Torreon and Arroyo 
Mesteno (sec. 9, T. 5 N., R. 8 E.). Wave erosion is well shown in 
many places, notably on the sandstone outcrops southwest of Dun- 
bar's ranch (T. 6 N., R. 10 E.). 

The prominent escarpment northwest of Willard coincides with the 
shore line, but whether it was formed by the lake is uncertain. There 
is also, perhaps, ground for doubt as to the origin of the cliff at the 
Mcintosh ranch, directly northwest of the village of Mcintosh, and of 
the cliff immediately northwest of Antelope Springs. (See PI. V, B.) 
Both of these coincide with the shore line, and the Mclnto'sh cliff at 
least has been scoured by water and strewn with beach materials. 

There are many terraces, more or less distinct and more or less 
intimately associated with beach ridges. Those in the vicinity of 
the cliff between Arroyo de Torreon and Arroyo Mesteno and those 
on the south margin of Arroyo de Torreon, near its mouth, will serve 
as examples, but others equally distinct occur in many localities. 

BEACH RIDGES. 

North and northeast of Lucia several prominent beach ridges (as in 
SE. I sec. 4, T. 5 N., R. 11 E.) persist for considerable distances. 
They also extend, somewhat obscured by drifting sand, parallel to the 
east shore in T. 6 N., R. 11 E.; T. 7 N., R. 10 E.; T. 8 N., R. 9 E. ; and 
between Lucia and Progresso. They are found in the embayment of 
Arroyo Mesteno (as in sec. 21, T. 5 N., R. 8 E.), and extend from the 
mouth of this arroyo to the mouth of Arroyo de Torreon. North of 
Arroyo de Torreon they occur almost continuously nearly to the north 
end of the lake (for example, in sec. 21, T. 6 N., R. 8 E., and sec. 23, T. 
8 N., R. 8 E.). In short, beach ridges, large and small, are abundant 
throughout the littoral zone on both sides of the lake flat. They are, 
however, interrupted by the mouths of the arroyos, and are so gener- 
ally absent at the north end (north of Arroyo del Cibolo, or Buffalo 
Draw) that the position of the shore line there is uncertain. 



20 



North of Lucia there are two large spits. The one farthest north, 
shown in Plate IV, B, is a definite gravelly ridge several rods in total 
width and about 10 feet high. It extends northeastward from the 
north end of a low sandstone ridge over a flat plain for a distance of 
about 1 \ miles and terminates abruptly. It was evidently formed by 
currents which swept northward along the west side of the ridge and 
thence northeastward into an open sea. The south spit is similar in 
character and origin. Several smaller spits were observed in other 
localities. 

BARS. 

Perhaps the most typical features of the ancient lake bed are the 
bars built across the mouths of the arroyos. Most of these bars are 
interrupted by narrow gaps cut by storm waters discharged through 
the arroyos, but in several small ravines no such gaps have been cut 
and the natural dams remain unimpaired. 

The largest bar is found at the east end of the great eastern embay- 
ment. It is about 15 feet high, trends approximately S. 30° E., and 
persists for several miles unbroken except at the gap which forms the 
outlet of the arroyo. (See PI. XIII, C.) 

Another prominent feature of this type is the remarkably wide em- 
bankment thrown across the mouth of the large arroyo south of the 
railroad west of Willard (T. 4 N., R. 8 E.). On the upstream side it 
ends abruptly with a steep bank like a normal bar or beach ridge, but 
on the lakeward side it extends for an indefinite distance, eventually 
merging with the lake flat. The gap which forms the outlet of the 
arroyo is a ravine approximately 20 feet deep, 20 feet wide at the bot- 
tom, and half a mile long. 

Across the flat expanse of the first large arroyo northwest of the 
railway are thrown a series of three or more bars, all of which have 
gaps near their southeast ends. They occur near the mouth of the 
arroyo, north of the township line (sec. 33, T. 5 N., R. 8 E.). 

Another notable bar is in the eastern embayment (sec. 34, T. 6 N., 
R. 11 E.), and another lies southwest of Antelope Spring, shutting in 
a ravine that runs east and west between sec. 22 and sec. 27 in T. 7 N., 
R. 8 E. Plate V, A, is a view of this bar from the south and shows 
the small gap at its south end. Just south of the Arroyo de Torreon 
is still another bar built across the mouth of a small ravine also 
having a gap at the south end. 

Most of the gaps are post-lacustrine drainage channels like the one 
in the large bar first described. Some of the gaps, however, are prob- 
ably places where the bars were never completed. A gap would be 
formed where a spit projected from one side of an arroyo nearly, but 
not quite, to the other. The gap in the bar last mentioned may be 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 275 PLATE V 




A. GAP IN BAR NEAR ANTELOPE SPRING. 
See page 20. 




B. CLIFF FORMING ANCIENT SHORE LINE NEAR ANTELOPE SPRING. 
See page 1 9. 



GEOLOGY. 21 

of this kind. Such a gap would serve as an outlet for the drainage 
and might be deepened and widened by erosion. 

A few of the bars built athwart the mouths of small ravines are 
not broken by gaps. Northwest of Willard (sec. 34, T. 5 N., E. 8 E.) 
such a bar impounds the storm waters, forming a small lake after 
heavy rains (PL I). Another such bar lies east of Mcintosh, near 
the southeast corner of T. 8 N., E. 9 E. Here a small ravine is 
obstructed by a high embankment that suggests an artificial dam 
or a railway fill. 

ESTUARIES. 

The bars prove that the broad flat-bottomed arroyos were in 
existence at the time the lake was present. How far up these arroyos 
were submerged can be inferred only from the topography. During 
the highest stages of the lake the water must have extended into 
many of them for considerable distances, forming numerous bays 
which resembled estuaries. When the lake receded, the water was 
drained from the arroyos and, except for the rocky islands that 
appeared in the east, the shore line became much more regular. 
The flatness of the arroyo bottoms may in part be due to sedimen- 
tation during the lake epoch. The gaps in the bars and the gullies 
that here and there indent the valley sides are practically the only 
marks of stream erosion made in the lower courses of the arroyos 
since the departure of the lake. 

STAGES INDICATED BY SHORE LINES. 

The littoral zone, within which lie the terraces, beach ridges, and 
other shore features, ranges in width from less than a mile to several 
miles, but is commonly between 1 and 2 miles wide. Its vertical 
range is about 100 feet, for it lies between 6,100 and 6,200 feet above 
sea level. The most prominent features occupy an intermediate 
position in the zone. The lowest are generally small but distinct; 
the highest are vague and elusive. As one goes out toward the 
alluvial slopes from the level and monotonous lake flat the eye is 
prepared to catch the slightest irregularity, and the first small ter- 
races and ridges invariably force themselves upon the attention. 
These are quickly followed by much larger features, which may at 
first appear to mark the ultimate extension of the lake. Upon 
going farther, however, it becomes evident that the outermost shore 
line has not yet been reached, for other beaches, which are much 
smaller and more vaguely defined, come into view. Still farther back 
all signs of wave work are lacking, and it is manifest that the bound- 
ary of the lake has been crossed. 

The various shore features were not formed at the same time, but 
record levels at which the lake stood at different times. The level of 



22 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N". MEX. 

a lake with no outlet is constantly fluctuating, for it is a function 
of rainfall on the one hand and of evaporation on the other, both 
of which are varying factors. Thus, when Lake Sevier, in Utah, was 
explored in 1872 it covered an area of about 188 square miles, but 
in 1880 it had so nearly dried up that one could walk across its beds; 1 
and still more recently, in spite of the increasing amount of water 
diverted for irrigation from Sevier River, which is its sole tributary^ 
it has refilled until it is again a lake of considerable size. Similar 
fluctuations have taken place in the level of Great Salt Lake within 
the relatively brief period in which records have been kept. 

Yet even lakes which have no outlet are likely to remain at approxi- 
mately one level long enough to impress distinct shore lines upon the 
sides of the basins that contain them. Thus, Lake Sevier has built 
at its north end a beach ridge comparable in size to the beach ridges 
of the ancient lake here described. 

Lake Estancia, no doubt, had many fluctuations, the general his- 
tory of which could perhaps be ascertained by a minute study of 
shore lines and by the correlation of lake deposits. The cursory 
examination that was made indicates that the lake stood at its 
highest level for only a brief time; that it remained a much longer 
time at somewhat lower levels, which did not, however, greatly 
diminish the water area; and that it finally shrank to lower and 
lower levels until it became too small and too shallow to form shore 
features that can at present be discerned. In the vicinity of Estancia 
the innermost shore line observed passes through the western part 
of the village and east of Estancia Spring. 

SIZE OP LAKE AND SIZE OF SHORE FEATURES. 

Shore features are the work of waves and currents, and these are 
produced by the wind. But in order to produce large waves the 
water must be so deep that the waves will not be dissipated by fric- 
tion on the bottom, and it must spread uninterruptedly over a large 
area, so that the winds will have a long sweep. Thus, in storms of 
the same magnitude, the waves on a large lake will be enormous 
when compared with those on a pond, but small when compared with 
the mighty swell of the ocean. If other things had been equal the 
shore features would be largest at the outermost shore line and would 
be progressively smaller inward. To the extent that this is not true 
it must be inferred that the time during which the lake stood at the 
different levels was not equal. When the lake stood at the level 
necessary to produce the most pronounced shore features it had shrunk 
but slightly from its maximum size. When it became smaller it built 
smaller shore features, and finally it became so constricted and shal- 
low that little wave work was done. . 

i Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville: Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890, p. 224 et seq. 





XytA tvMi^ft-. - Hk i 


m 




I - ' \a. iHB 




GEOLOGY. 23 

Broadly considered, the shore features in Estancia Valley are com- 
mensurate with the size of the ancient lake. They are tiny in con- 
trast with those of the much larger ancient Lake Bonneville, but they 
compare in size with those of the smaller Lake Sevier. 

EFFECT OF PREVAILING WINDS. 

A decision as to which side of the lake shows the most vigorous 
wave work depends somewhat on the interpretation of the cliffs that 
extend along the west coast. The terraces, beach ridges, spits, and 
bars are perhaps best displayed on the west side, between Arroyo 
del Cibolo (Buffalo Draw) and Arroyo Mesteno (Manzano Draw), 
but this superior distinctness is due partly to the fact that many of 
the features on the east side, although perhaps larger, have their 
character obscured by drifting sand. Some of the most conspicuous 
features are found in the eastern embayment, where, no doubt, 
large waves were formed by the free sweep of the west winds, but 
features perhaps equally prominent are found along the southwestern 
coast. Shore features are not of impressive size at the south end of 
the lake and are almost undiscernable at the north end. 

On the west side there is little sand, but on the east side sand 
occurs in large quantities — a difference probably due, in part, to the 
prevalence of westerly storm winds. 

LAKE DEPOSITS. 
BEACH MATERIAL. 

Most of the material constituting the beaches, beach ridges, spits, 
and bars is gravel. The pebbles are water worn and many of them 
are covered with a gray coat of lime. The best exposures of beach 
material are found in the gaps that have been cut through the bars. 

STRATIFIED SEDIMENTS. 

Except for the salt basins and clay hills, the area within the shore 
zone is flat (PL III, A); but the salt basins (PL I) are excavated 
to depths of 10 to 20 feet in the material of this plain, and their 
sides are generally steep and thus expose the strata to good advan- 
tage. Wells have also been dug and are usually left uncased, showing 
the materials through which they extend. Moreover, many cellars 
and dugouts have been made, most of which likewise remain unlined. 
Ample opportunity is therefore afforded to examine the formation 
which immediately underlies the plain. This formation is totally 
different from that which underlies the alluvial slopes. It is per- 
fectly stratified, consisting of innumerable thin layers lying one upon 
another, each layer traceable for an indefinite distance. It is pre- 
cisely the kind of deposit which would be formed at the quiet bottom 
of a large body of standing water and which could be formed in no 



24 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

other manner. It was observed in many exposures, natural and 
artificial, and in widely separated localities. It is practically coex- 
tensive with the lake flat and clay hills area and can be seen wherever 
there is a salt basin, a dug well, a cellar, or any other excavation. 
It is shown in Plate VI, A and B, Plate VII, A, and Plate VIII, A; 
but none of these pictures do full justice to the delicate lamination 
displayed in fresh cuts. Clay or shale constitutes the bulk of the 
material, but layers of sand were also noted, and beds of grit and fine 
gravel were observed near the outer margin of the lake flat. 

The following is a generalized section of the strata in a large open 
well on the farm of L. Knight, NE. sec. 1, T. 5 N., R. 8 E. (PL VIII, 
A). The lake beds appear to begin at the depth of 3 feet 8 inches. 

Section in shallow open well of L. Knight. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Soil 

Dark reddish gray clay 

Soil belt. 

Dark reddish gray clay, including a few pebbles 

White and yellow, fine, earthy sand, interbedded with thin strata of fine gravel. 

White shale, including crystals, and interbedded with thin strata of sand 

Yellow, red, and gray sand, very fine 



Ft. in. 

6 

1 
2 

2 
4 
4. 
2 6 



Ft. in. 

6 

1 6 
1 8 
3 8 
7 8 

11 8 

14 2 



A contrast with this section is presented by a section more remote 
from the shore — the cliff of the salt basin in sec. 21, T. 5 N., R. 10 E. 
(Pis. VI, A and B, and X, A, and fig. 2), in which the lake sediments 
consist almost exclusively of laminae of clay or. shale, considerably 
impregnated with lime and gypsum. In some of the basins strata of 
fine sand were observed, but clay or shale greatly predominates in the 
interior area in which the salt basins are found. Borings made for 
soil samples also show a graduation toward finer sediments with 
increasing distance from the shore. 

Numerous crystals, most of them of gypsum, are included in the 
clay or shale strata. These crystals are generally small, but in some 
localities large selenite crystals were found. 

As to the thickness of the lake sediments little is definitely known, 
but the available evidence indicates that they are relatively thin and 
are underlain at no great depth by alluvial deposits. The principal 
evidence concerning their thickness is found in the beds of gravel 
(alluvial deposits) encountered in drilling on the lake flat, and in the 
transition in many wells from sediments of grayish hue (lake sediments) 
near the surface to red clay (alluvial deposits) at greater depths. 

The beds penetrated by the railway well at Willard, as shown in 
the section given above (p. 13), appear to be alluvial rather than lake 
deposits. The beds below 32 feet in the deep wells of L. Knight 
(NE. I sec. 1, T. 5 N., R. 8 E.), given in the following section as 
reported by the owner, also appear to be alluvial. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 275 PLATE VII 




A. LAKE SEDIMENTS OVERLAIN BY WIND-DEPOSITED CLAY. 
See page 23. 




B. TESTING A WELL IN ESTANCIA. 
See page 43. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 275 PLATE VIII 




A. OPEN WELL IN LAKE SEDIMENTS. 
See page 24. 




B. PUMPING PLANT AND RESERVOIR. 
See page 54. 



GEOLOGY. 

Section in deep wells of L. Knigh 



25 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Sand and clay, chiefly dark-colored (in part given above) 

Sticky blue mud 

Gravel 

White chalky material 

Red clay, intermixed with white sand and gravel 

Chiefly red clay with some grit 

Clean gravel . . .* 



Feet. 


Feet. 


30 


30 


2 


32 


8 


40 


20 


60 


30, 


90 


145 


235 


5 


240 



WORK OF THE WIND. 



SAND DUNES. 



On the east side of the valley are great masses of wind-blown sand, 
the largest accumulations having collected east of Mcintosh, in the 
west central part of T. 6 N., R. 11 E. and in an adjacent area to the 
west, and in certain localities north and south of Progresso. Much 



FEET 

- 50 



40 
30 



20 



Salty mud flat 




Figure 2.— Section of cliff surrounding salt basin. 

of this sand is heaped into fresh dunes and is at present being handled 
by the winds. Its occurrence on the east side of the valley is due in 
part to a difference in the derivative rocks, but in part also to the pre- 
vailing westerly storm winds at the time the lake existed and more 
recently. The preponderance of sand along the east shore is char- 
acteristic of other lakes, both ancient and modern. Moreover, of the 
materials excavated from the salt basins the sand was generally 
carried farther than the clay. 

SALT BASINS AND CLAY HILLS. 

The salt basins in Estancia Valley are not remnants of the ancient 
lake — not merely low spots in which the surplus water collects until 
it is dissipated by evaporation — but are distinct basins sunk below the 
level of the plain by which they are surrounded, and as a rule are bor- 
dered by definite, nearly vertical walls. (See figs. 2 and 3.) Their flat 
bottoms practically coincide with the ground-water level and consist 
of mud covered with crusts of salt (PL VI, A and B) , although after rains 
they may be submerged in water (PI. IX, B). The floor of one basin 



26 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

(Laguna Salina ; sees. 29 and 30, T. 5 N., R. 10 E.) is covered with 
salt sufficiently thick and pure to be commercially valuable (PL IX, A). 

Altogether there are several score of salt basins, with a total area 
estimated at 13,500 acres. Among these, Laguna del Perro assumes 
relatively gigantic proportions, for it is about 12 miles long and 
covers an area nearly equal to the combined area of all the other 
basins. 

The clay hills in the valley are closely associated with the salt 
basins. Within the area in which they exist there are many level tracts 
which are essentially a part of the original plain (PI. X, B) . The high- 
est clay hills project more than 100 feet above the plain on which the}^ 
rest, but most of them are perhaps less than 50 feet high. Typically 
they form huge embankments that more or less completely encircle 
the salt basins (PI. X, A) . This form is so common that a traveler 
approaching a hill or ridge confidently expects to find a salt basin 

on the other side. 

East-*— _^-- Wind-deposited clay 

^^^^^ - l n some places the 

Or iginal lakeflat ^^^ ^Excavated are a ., - ridge KeS cl0S6 to 

Water level * — Hals .as jp!sn_a ^q basin and walls 

it in with a steep 

Windrdeposited clay Wind-deposited cliff (PL VI); in 

Original lake flat ^^^^T.^^—- others it Stands 

~~ ■, -, %__ ^J Lake sedtments_ 
^a*W*veZ -« back a ghort dig _ 

tance, a ledge or ter- 
wind-depoaited clay race intervening be- 

StesedirnentT t ween the ridge and 
the basin. (See PL 

Figure 3.— Diagrammatic sections of salt basins and clay hills. .„-. , n _. . 

IX and ng. 3.) As 
a rule the highest ridges are on the east sides of the basins, and the 
west sides of many basins are entirely open. 

These hills and ridges are composed of pale yellowish gray, fine- 
grained, pulverulent dust or clay, and contain no pebbles or grit. The 
clay shows indistinct stratification and occasional cross bedding. Its 
structure is shown in Plate IV, A. 

Both basins and hills are the work of wind. D. W. Johnson has 
described these features and has recognized the eolian character of 
the hills by calling them " dunes of white adobe soil." 1 Keyes 
refers to " shallow lake basins hollowed out of the plains-floor by the 
wind," and cities "Laguna del Perro and other lakelets of the Estan- 
cia plains" as typical. 2 It is difficult to conceive any other mode of 
origin. The material excavated from the basins was heaped up to 
form the hills. The work of excavation proceeded to the ground- 

1 Johnson, D. W., Notes of a geological reconnaissance in eastern Valencia County, New Mexico; Am. 
Geologist, vol. 29, 1902, p. 82. 

2 Keycs,C R., Geologic processes and geographic products of the arid region: Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 
vol. 19, 1908, p. 574, and PI. 41. 



Origin al lake f lai^ ^-"-^ 7=^^ Excavated area 
. Water level 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 275 PLATE IX 




A. LAGUNA SALINA. 
Showing its white incrustation of salt. See page 25. 




B. A SALT BASIN WHOSE FLOOR IS TEMPORARILY COVERED WITH WATER. 
See page 25. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 275 PLATE X 




A. CLAY RIDGE BORDERING A SALT BASIN. 
See page 25. 




B. TYPICAL CLAY-HILL TOPOGRAPHY. 
See page 25. 



SOILS. 



27 



water level but could be carried no deeper, and hence the flat, miry, 
alkaline floors of the basins. The material and structure of the 
hills corroborates the theory of their eolian origin, the material, as 
far as observed, being thoroughly assorted and containing nothing 
coarser than the wind could handle. Southwest winds have pre- 
vailed in this region and hence the hills are best developed on the 
east and north sides of the basins, as is well shown in figure 4. The 
wind is still active and the effects of its recent erosive work can be 
seen on exposed parts of 
the basin walls. 

The highest clay hills 
lie within the vertical 
range in which shore fea- 
tures are found and con- 
sist of material that would 
yield very readily to wave 
action, yet not the slight- 
est indication of a shore 
line is recorded on their 
flanks, so they have evi- 
dently been formed since 
the lake disappeared. 
When the lake had dried 
up deflatation from the 
dry surface began. As 
the water level sank the 
basins were eroded deeper, 
and, conversely, to a cer- 
tain extent the presence 
of the basins tended to 
lower the water level still 
more. 

Attention has already 
been directed to the small 
amount of post-lacustrine 
stream erosion in the valley proper, in contrast to which the work of the 
wind is surprisingly great and impressive. Indeed, the most conspic- 
uous and effective stream work has been done on the wind- built hills. 




Figuke 4. — Map showing the relation of topographic features 
to prevailing direction of wind. (Eastern portion o! town- 
ship plat, T. 4 N., E. 9 E., surveyed by Duane Wheeler.) 



SOILS. 

RED LOAMY SOILS. 



The most widely distributed soil in the valley consists of red clay 
intermingled with varying quantities of silt, grit, and gravel. It is 
seen in typical character in the alluvial slopes and arroyos, but it also 
occurs throughout much of the littoral zone and is found far up in the 



28 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N". MEX. 

foothills. It is essentially the product of the weathering of the rocks 
in the surrounding highlands, whence it has been washed out into its 
present position in the manner already described. In general this 
soil is very fertile, as is demonstrated by the large crops that it pro- 
duces when climatic conditions are not unfavorable, and its fertility 
is due largely to its content of soluble substances which serve as plant 
food. These soluble substances have been produced by the weather- 
ing of the rocks and have not been leached out from the soil by per- 
colating waters to so great an extent as in more humid regions. 

SANDY SOILS. 

Sandy soils are found chiefly on the east side of the valley. They 
range from clean pale-yellow dune sand, which is worthless for agri- 
culture, to red earthy sand and red sandy loam, which may be very 
productive. Sandy soils, like clay and loam soils, have been deprived 
of less of their soluble constituents in arid than in humid regions. 

ALKALI SOILS. 

It has just been stated that most of the soil in Estancia Valley, as 
in arid and semiarid regions generally, is very fertile because of the 
soluble substances which it contains. But if certain soluble sub- 
stances, commonly known as alkalies, exist in soils in quantities too 
large, they are injurious to plant life; hence very fertile soils grade 
readily into alkali soils; and, moreover, soils which at first are very 
productive may, after a period of irrigation and cultivation, become 
harmfully alkaline. On this point Milton Whitney, 1 Chief of the 
Bureau of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, makes the 
following statement : 

This accumulation explains the wonderful fertility of the lands generally in the 
arid regions the world over, but it is also a constant menace because of the large amount 
of soluble salts which is liable to accumulate locally as the result of irrigation or as a 
result of other natural conditions not well understood, until they are a menace and 
often a destructive agency for the very lands which were formerly held in such 
esteem. 

The different kinds of alkali and their effects upon vegetation can 
best be explained by a further quotation from Whitney, as follows: 

The alkali soils of the West are of two principal classes. The alkaline carbonates 
or black alkali (usually sodium carbonate) is the worst form, actually dissolving the 
organic materials of the soil and corroding and killing the germinating seed or roots 
of plants; the white alkalies, the most common of which are sodium sulphate (Glau- 
ber's salt), sodium chloride (common salt), magnesium sulphate, and magnesium 
chloride, are not in themselves poisonous to plants, nor do they attack the substance 
of the plant roots, but are injurious when, owing to their presence in excessive amounts, 
they prevent the plants from taking up their needed food and water supply. 

The amount of soluble salts which plants can stand depends upon the character of 
the salt, the character of the soil, and the kind of plant. Hilgard states that few 

i Alkali lands: Farmers' Bull. No. 88, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1899, p. 7. 



soils. 29 

plants can stand as much as 0.1 of 1 per cent of sodium carbonate; of sodium chloride 
plants can stand about 0.25 of 1 per cent, and of sodium sulphate 0.45 to 0.50 of 1 per 
cent. Plants can stand less salts in sandy lands than on heavy clay or gumbo lands. 
It is a well-known fact that crops also differ in their ability to stand salts, and many 
crops will grow well upon soils on which others will not live. 

Investigations at Billings, Mont., showed that when the concentration of the salts 
in active solution in the soil moisture is as great as 1 per cent the limit of most culti- 
vated plants is reached. Further concentration kills all our ordinary agricultural 
crops. It was found, furthermore, that plants could just exist with 0.45 of 1 per cent 
of the soluble salts present, and this is taken as the limit of plant production. 

A later statement by C. W. Dorsey, of the Bureau of Soils, is as 
follows : * 

Of the different classes of alkali, sodium carbonate, or black alkali, is considered the 
most injurious. Laboratory experiments have shown that magnesium chloride and 
sulphate are equally, if not more, injurious than sodium carbonate. After these salts 
comes sodium chloride (ordinary salt), and, last, sodium sulphate. When present in 
soils to the exclusion of other salts, 0.05 per cent of sodium carbonate presents about 
the upper limit of concentration for common crops. One-half of 1 per cent of sodium 
chloride is commonly regarded as the endurance limit of crops and 1 per cent of 
sodium sulphate. Sodium sulphate, then, is the least injurious and sodium carbonate 
the most injurious of the salts usually constituting the greater part of alkali under 
ordinary field conditions, while sodium chloride occupies a middle position. 

Gypsum (calcium sulphate) acts as an antidote for black alkali by 
reacting with it to form calcium carbonate, which is harmless, and 
sodium sulphate, a less injurious white alkali. A soil that contains 
a large amount of gypsum would therefore not be expected to contain 
much black alkali, although it may contain some. 2 

In Estancia Valley the shallow water belt (PL XI), the ancient lake 
bed (PL I), the area of highly mineralized waters (PL XI), and the 
area in which the most alkaline soils are found, all coincide approxi- 
mately with one another because all are results of the same general 
causal conditions. The rain water that falls on the highland borders 
migrates toward the lowest area, where it accumulates until it is 
disposed of by evaporation. Whether it here stands slightly below 
the general surface of the ground, as at present, or a short distance 
above the surface, as in the Pleistocene period when the lake existed, is 
merely an incident in the general circulation. The important facts 
in this connection are that in its migration it dissolves and carries 
along the soluble constituents which it encounters in the rocks and 
soil, and that on its evaporation these soluble constituents are left 
behind, thus becoming concentrated in the lowest portion of the 
valley. The crusts of alkali which cover the salt basins are visible 
illustrations of the process that has impregnated with alkali the soil of 
the low area. 

1 Reclamation of alkali soils: Bull. Bureau of Soils No. 34, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1906, p. 10. 

• 2 Cameron, F. K., Application of the theory of solution to the study of soils: Field operations, Div. of 
Soils, 1899, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1900, pp. 152 et seq. Hilgard, E. W., Soils, Macmillan Co.-, New York, 1906, 
pp. 449etseq., 457, 458. ......... 



30 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



Samples of soil collected at five points within the lake flat along a 
line extending 6 miles eastward from Estancia (see the map, PL XI) 
were analyzed by the United States Bureau of Soils, with the following 

results : 

Analyses of soils in Estancia Valley. 



Location. 



Depth 


Soluble 


within 


solids 


which 


(alkalies); 


the mate- 


per cent of 


rial was 


total mate- 


obtained. 


rial. 


Feet. 




1 


0.2 


2 


.3 


3 


.8 


4 


1.0 


5 


1.2 


6 


1.0 


1 


.1 


2 


1.4 


3 


1.3 


4 


1.5 


5 


2.1 


6 


1.6 


1 


.6 


2 


.7 


3 


3.7 


4 


3.9 


5 


3.7 


6 


3.5 


1 


2.5 


2 


2.7 


3 


2.9 


4 


2.7 


5 


2.9 


6 


3.5 


1 


1.6 


2 


2.8 


3 


3.7 


4 


4.5 


5 


3.6 


6 


4.5 



Predominating salts in the 
order named. 



Estancia, NW. 1 sec. 12, T. 6 N., R. 8 E., at the 
intersection of the railway with the section line. 



T. J. Moore, northeast corner of SW. \ sec. 5, T. 6 
N..R.9E. 



Southwest corner of sec. 4,T.6N.,R.9E 



N. Williams, southwest corner of SE. \ sec. 3, T. 
6N.,R. 9E. 



H. N. Summers, southeast corner of SW. \ sec. 1, 
T. 6N., R. 9E. 



Chlorides and bicarbonates. 

Do. 
Sulphates and chlorides. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Chlorides and sulphates. 
Sulphates and bicarbonates. 

Do. 
Sulphates and chlorides. 

Do. 

Do. 
Chlorides and sulphates. 
Sulphates and chlorides. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 



In respect to these analyses J. A. Bonsteel, in charge of soil sur- 
veys, writes: 

It is apparent to the student of soils and soil conditions in the Basin region that these 
soils are very heavily loaded with alkali salts, comparing more directly with those 
of old desiccated lake basins than with any of the agricultural lands now occupied in 
the United States. You will also notice the continual appearance of chlorides in 
practically all of the samples. From this I judge that the soil samples were taken 
from a decidedly alkaline tract, probably a desiccated lake bed, and where only the 
most efficient tile underdrainage would render the majority of these soils capable 
of producing any economic vegetation. 

CLIMATE. 



RAINFALL. 



The following tables give the monthly and annual precipitation in 
Estancia Valley as recorded by the United States Weather Bureau. 
They cover a period that is too short to serve as a reliable basis for 
estimating the average monthly and yearly precipitation, but they 
are, nevertheless, exceedingly instructive. 



CLIMATE. 



31 



Precipitation in Estancia Valley, in inches, 1903-1909. 
Estancia. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1904 






















0.10 


0.75 




1905 


i.66 

.08 
.40 
.20 


6.94 
.33 
.21 

Tr. 


0.38 
.69 
.00 


2.68 
1.37 
1.97 


0.01 

.03 

1.22 


1.13 

.00 
.90 


4."4i' 

.56 

4.46 

.99 


1.07 
1.73 
4.71 


1.16 
1.49 






1906 

1907 


2.17 
1.94 


1.33 
2.11 


1.13 


14.76 


1908 






1909 








1.00 


1.30 


1.25 


1.36 


.10 


.78 



















Mountainair. 



1903 


0.60 
.10 
.72 
.40 

1.38 
.60 
.18 


5.39 
Tr. 
1.64 
1.11 
.31 
.51 
.80 


0.46 
.14 

1.09 
.28 
.06 
.36 

4.92 


0.43 

.14 

3.66 


0.06 
.57 
.32 


2.96 
2.38 
1.11 


0.52 
1.11 
2.47 


1.71 
2. 45 
1.60 


0.36. 

2.66 
3.12 
1.43 
1.99 
.78 
1.90 


Tr. 

0.98 

.31 

1.96 

3.45 

.77 
1.61 


0.00 
.03 
3.74 
1.49 
2.22 
1.73 
Tr. 


0.52 
.34 

3.04 

2.84 
.34 
.37 

1.79 


13.01 


1904 


10.90 


1905 


22.82 


1906 




1907 

1908 


2.68 

3.00 

.22 


4.24 
.61 
.18 


.12 
.66 
.06 


1.19 
4.78 
2.31 


4.88 
2.50 
2.53 


22.86 
16.57 


1909 


16.50 


• 




Average 


.57 


1.40 


1.04 


1.69 


1.00 


1.21 


2.06 


2.61 


1.75 


1.30 


1.32 


1.32 


17.11 



Otto. 



1909. 



0.45 


0.25 


0.40 


0.36 


0.29 


0.37 


1.27 


2.00 


2.47 


0.54 


0.20 


0.25 



Estancia Valley clearly belongs to the semiarid belt, its rainfall 
being deficient in quantity and irregular in distribution. Much 
more rain falls in some years than in others, much more falls in some 
months than in others of the same season, and much more falls 
during a certain month in one year than during the same month 
in other years. A large share of the rain comes in heavy down- 
pours of short duration, covering limited areas and occurring at 
irregular and often at long intervals. The heaviest precipitation is 
in July and August. There is frequently a deficiency in the winter 
and spring months. 

During the summer the great cyclonic storms which regularly 
pass eastward across the continent have relatively little effect in 
this region, but the showers are generally produced by ascensional 
currents resulting from the daily heating of the atmosphere. Nearly 
every afternoon the temperature rises, the barometric pressure 
decreases, and the weather becomes threatening. Most of the 
storms blow over with a few stray raindrops, but occasionally one 
bursts with fury and the rain descends in torrents. 1 

The above tables cover too brief a period and are too incomplete 
to afford a basis for definite conclusions, but they indicate more rain- 
fall at Mountainair than at Estancia. Of the 37 months in which 
records are available for both stations 27 months show greater 
rainfall in Mountainair and only 10 months show greater rainfall in 



Henry, A. J., Climatology of the United States: Bull. U. 
86378°— wsp 275—11 3 



Weather Bureau Q, 1906, pp. 50, 888-889. 



32 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



Estancia. Moreover, in 
these 37 months 58.53 
inches fell in Mountainair 
and only 41.90 inches fell 
in Estancia. This differ- 
ence is graphically shown 
in figure 5. 

EVAPORATION. 

The term " annual evap- 
oration" is used to mean 
the total thickness of the 
layer of water that would 
be removed by evapora- 
tion from the surface of a 
lake or other body of water 
continuously exposed to 
the atmosphere for one 
year. It is as important 
a factor of climate as is 
rainfall. It varies in- 
versely with the relative 
humidity of the atmos- 
phere and directly with 
temperature and wind ve- 
locity. At Albuquerque 
the average evaporation 
for two years (1900 and 
1903) was 82.9 inches; 1 at 
Amarillo, Tex., it was re- 
ported to be 55.4 inches. 2 
In Estancia Valley it is 
probably less than at Al- 
buquerque and more than 
at Amarillo. 

TEMPERATURE. 

The following table gives 
the meager data at present 
available as to the mean 

i Lee, W. T., Water resources of the 
Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico: 
Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey 
No. 188, 1907, p. 31. 

2 Johnson, W. D., The High Plains 
and their utilization: Twenty-first 
Ann. Rent. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4, 
1901, p. 677. 



Inches of rainfall 




CLIMATE. 



33 



annual temperature, the highest and lowest temperatures, and the 
dates of latest frosts in the spring and earliest frosts in the fall: 

Temperatures in Estancia Valley, 1903-1909, in degrees Fahrenheit. 



Years. 


Mean annual. 


Highest. 


Lowest. 


Last killing frost 
in spring. 


First killing frost 
in fall. 


Estan- 
cia. 


Moun- 
tainair. 


Estan- 
cia. 


Moun- 
tainair. 


Estan- 
cia. 


Moun- 
tainair. 


Estan- 
cia. 


Moun- 
tainair. 


Estan- 
cia. 


Moun- 
tainair. 


1903 




49.4 

50.3 

6 49.1 

"c52.'i' 
51.0 


94' 

95 
95 
94 


95 

74 
96 
92 
95 
95 


------ 

-16 

7 
7 


-12 

- 3 
-13 

- 2 

- 2 
7 




May 25 a 
May 9 a 
May 12 a 

May 29 a 
May 13 
May 15 a 




Sept. 17 
Sept. 8o 
Sept. 30 
Oct. 14 


1904 








1905. 




Apr. 23 a 
May 8 
June 12 a 


Sept, 15 
Oct. 6 
Sept. 25 a 


1906... 


50.2 


1907 


Oct. 9a 


1908. 




Sept. 27 


1909 



























a Minimum temperature of 32° or lower. 
6 Interpolated. 



Obtained by averaging the monthly means. 



The following statement by A. J. Henry, 1 of the United States 
Weather Bureau, in regard to New Mexico in general, applies for this 
region : 

The daily variation of temperature is very great. * * * Owing to the dryness 
of the air, the extremes of temperature are not such potent factors in the comfort of 
animal life as the degrees registered by the thermometer would indicate. It is a 
noteworthy fact that 100° in the shade here is not so oppressive as a temperature of 
85° in a humid climate. Sunstrokes are unknown in New Mexico. In a somewhat 
corresponding degree the cold of winter is felt less. Spring advances slowly, develop- 
ment being retarded by the cold nights as well as by the lack of moisture. * * * 
May, June, July, and August are characterized by extremes of heat during the middle 
of the day, but the nights are cool. 

WIND. 

Late winter and early spring are characterized by high winds which 
make outdoor life unpleasant, but destructive winds are rare. Later 
in the year there is less wind and the climate is generally very 
agreeable. 

The following table, which gives data as to the prevailing direction 
of the wind, is introduced especially because of. its bearing on the wind 
theory of the formation of the clay hills and the location of the sand 

dunes : 

Prevailing direction of wind in Estancia Valley. 

Summarized by years, 1903-1909. » 





1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 








SW. 
SW. 


W. 

SW. 








Mountainair 


SW. 


SW. 


SW. 


SW. 


SW. 









Summarized by months for 1907. 












Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Estancia 






W. 

SW. 






SW. 
SW. 


SW. 

SW. 








NW. 

sw„ 




Mountainair . . . 


SW. 


SW. 


SW. 1 SW. 


SW. 


SW. 


SW. 


SW. 



Henry, A. J., Climatology of the United States: Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau, Q., 1906, p. 888 



34 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



The next table gives the average wind velocity for one year at four 
points in the general region to which Estancia Valley belongs. It is 
presented because of its bearing on the data given on page 59 in 
regard to the pumping capacity of windmills. 

Average wind velocity in the Southwest in 1907, in unites per hour. 





Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


El Paso, Tex 


8.1 

5.8 
6.1 
7.2 


10.4 
6.9 
6.7 
8.2 


10.4 
8.5 

7.7 
8.6 


13.2 
10.7 

7.6 
8.0 


12.5 
10.4 

7.2 
7.8 


.11.0 
8.1 
6.0 

7.2 


9.8 
8.4 
5.2 
6.7 


8.0 
7.5 
4.5 
7.3 


7.0 
6.1 
5.0 
7.3 


8.8 

""i." 6~ 

7.6 


7.9 
5.5 
4.6 

7.7 


9.4 




6.6 




7.1 




9.5 







RELATION OF CLIMATE TO AGRICULTURE. 

The mean annual rainfall, taken by itself, gives very incomplete 
information as to the adaptability of the region to agriculture, for the 
distribution of the rainfall, the rate of evaporation, and other factors 
are vital elements of the problem. The preponderance of precipita- 
tion in the summer over the winter season is obviously favorable to 
agriculture, but the deficiency of rainfall in the spring, its general 
irregularity, and the fact that much of it comes in short heavy show- 
ers are unfavorable, as are also the low humidity of the atmosphere 
and the strong spring winds, both of which intensify evaporation. 

WATER. 

SOURCE AND DISPOSAL. 

If the mean annual precipitation for the entire Estancia Basin is 
assumed to be 15 inches, the amount of water that falls on the basin 
as rain or snow in an average year is approximately 1,600,000 acre- 
feet. If it is further assumed that within recent years the quantity 
of ground water has neither materially increased nor decreased, it fol- 
lows that the same amount is, on the average, withdrawn each year 
from the Estancia Basin. This withdrawal is accomplished by evapo- 
ration into the atmosphere and by seepage through underground pas- 
sages to lower points outside of the basin. No water leaves the basin 
in surface streams. 



EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE. 

Much of the water that falls as rain or snow returns to the atmos- 
phere by being evaporated, either directly from the surface or after 
it has soaked a short distance into the ground, from which it is again 
withdrawn by vegetation or by capillary action in the soil. The 
proportion of moisture thus disposed of is greatest for the lightest 
showers and least for the heaviest and most persistent rains. 



SOURCE AND DISPOSAL OF WATER. 35 

MOUNTAIN SPRINGS AND STREAMS. 

Some of the moisture that falls on the mountains seeps into the 
pores and crevices of the rocks, but reappears at lower levels, where it 
issues in springs that give rise to brooks or rivulets, most of which 
disappear long before they reach the valley, the water being dissipated 
both by evaporation and by seepage into, the ground. Springs and 
streams of this type in the canyons and foothills of the Manzano Range 
have determined the location of the old Mexican settlements of 
Chilili, Tajique, Torreon, Manzano, and Punta de Agua. 

FLOODS. 

In the entire basin there are no permanent streams except the tiny 
ones just mentioned, but there are many wide stream channels, or 
arroyos, which- are normally dry, but which during heavy storms carry 
much water. The water of most of these floods is lost in the arroyos, 
but that of a few of the largest reaches the central flat and there soaks 
into the earth. Probably these floods furnish most of the ground 
water in the valley fill. 

UNDERFLOW. 

Though the valley includes no important permanent surface stream 
it contains a great body of ground water which, below a certain depth, 
fills every pore, crack, and crevice. From time to time this great 
body of water receives contributions from portions of the rainfall 
that escape evaporation. It is not, however, a stationary mass, for 
it moves constantly, though very slowly, away from the upland border 
and toward the low central portion of the basin. 

OVERFILLING OF UNDERGROUND RESERVOIR. 

If the ground water is constantly augmented by contributions from 
the rainfall, and if this newly acquired water moves constantly toward 
the center of the valley, it would be expected that in the central 
region the pores and crevices of the ground above the bed rock would 
in time all become filled and the underground reservoir would over- 
flow. This is essentially what takes place, the surplus being returned 
to the surface or brought so near to the surface that it can be reached 
by evaporation. The surplus is disposed of in three ways — by over- 
flow from valley springs, by evaporation from the salt basins, and by 
evaporation in other areas in which the ground water rises near 
enough to the surface to come within the reach of the atmosphere 
through capillarity. In each of the three ways the ultimate disposal 
of the water is by return to the atmosphere through the process of 
evaporation. 



36 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

There are several valley springs, two of the largest and best known 
of which are Estancia Spring, in the village of Estancia, and Antelope 
Spring, several miles north (PL I) — both important watering places 
in the old days before the advent of the agriculturist. From general 
observations it seems safe to say that their combined yield does not 
exceed several hundred acre-feet per year — an amount which is 
insignificant when compared with the total quantity of water that 
falls upon the Estancia Basin each year as rain or snow. 

Where the ground water lies sufficiently near the surface, it is with- 
drawn in the same manner and by the same process that kerosene is 
withdrawn through the wick of a burning lamp, the soil serving as the 
wick. The moisture at the top of the soil is constantly being removed 
by evaporation just as the kerosene at the top of the wick is removed 
by burning, and new moisture is drawn up through the pores of the 
soil just as kerosene is drawn up through the pores of the wick. In both 
cases the liquid is lifted by capillarity. 

There is a limit to the height that water can be lifted by capil- 
larity, but this limit is not the same for different soils. It can be 
lifted higher through clay or fine silt, which has small pores, than 
through sand, which has larger pores. Hilgard states that the 
maximum height of capillary rise thus far observed is 10.17 feet. 1 
C. H. Lee concludes that in the area he has investigated in Owens 
Valley, CaL, no appreciable evaporation occurs from soil where 
the depth to water exceeds 8 or 9 feet. 2 For most soils, capillarity 
is probably not effective except where the water stands considerably 
nearer the surface than 10 feet. 

The rate at which water is raised by capillary action depends on 
the character of the soil and the height that the water is lifted. It 
is more rapid in sandy soil than in clay soil, and more rapid where the 
water is near the surface than where it is several feet below the 
surface. In an experiment made at Deerfield, Kans., in 1905, 
Slichter 3 found that the evaporation during the period from August 6 
to September 3 was as follows: From open water, 10.90 inches; from 
cultivated soil with 1 foot to water, 4.88 inches; from uncultivated 
soil with 1 foot to water, 5.83 inches; from soil with 2 feet to water, 
2.23 inches; from soil with 3 feet to water, 0.80 inch. The soil 
was sandy loam. Lee 2 concluded from his experiments in Owens 
Valley that where the water level is not more than 3 feet nor less 
than 1 foot below the surface, a depth of evaporation of about 80 
per cent of that from an exposed water surface can be expected. 

The salt basins of Estancia Valley are a part of the time miry or 
covered with water, and are probably in general near enough the water 

i Hilgard, E. W., Soils: MacMillan Co., N. Y., 1906, p. 203. 

2 Precipitation, run-off, and evaporation in the Owens Valley: Monthly Weather Review Weather 
Bureau, U. S. Dept. Agr., vol. 38, No. 1, Jan., 1910, p. 127. 

3 Slichter, C S., The underflow in Arkansas Valley in western Kansas: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
Survey No. 153, 1906, p. 44. 



SOURCE AND DISPOSAL OF WATER. 37 

level to permit evaporation from the ground water. If their total 
area is taken as 13,500 acres and the annual evaporation from open 
water is taken as 72 inches, then the amount of water that would 
be removed from their surface each year if they were continually 
covered with water is 81,000 acre-feet, or about 5 per cent of the total 
precipitation in the Estancia Basin. Where the water level is very 
near the surf ace evaporation may take place even more rapidly than 
from open water, but since in certain places and certain seasons it is 
probably some distance below the surface the actual average rate of 
evaporation is probably much less than for open water. Moreover, 
much of the evaporating potentiality is consumed in removing sur- 
face water which runs in from the clay hills during heavy showers. 

Evaporation of ground water is also taking place in some localities 
outside of salt basins, and it seems probable that the amount of water 
withdrawn in these localities is quantitatively important. Near the 
McGillivray well, in Estancia, where the water is only 5 feet below 
the surface, incrustations of salt were observed, although similar 
incrustations were not evident in the soil of the same locality where 
the depth to ground water is greater, this being true of the red soil 
that lies at a higher level to the west and also, to a certain extent, 
of the " ashy" soil that lies at a lower level to the east. Similar con- 
ditions were observed elsewhere along the shallow-water belt on the 
west side of the valley. East of Moriarty there are also areas of 
very shallow water in which crusts of salt have formed at the sur- 
face such as are not generally found in the central part of the valley. 
The explanation seems to be that where the ground water lies at a 
shallow level it is drawn to the surface and evaporated, leaving its 
content of salt. The total area outside of the salt basins having a 
depth to water of less than 10 feet is perhaps as great as the area of 
the salt basins themselves. 

LEAKAGE OF THE BASIN. 

As has been repeatedly indicated, the rock formations which border 
the valley and underlie the valley fill constitute a relatively impervious 
basin in which the water collects. But this basin is perched high 
above most of the surrounding territory and if it is not entirely 
waterproof serious loss may occur. The extensive outcrop of more 
or less porous rock formations east of the Manzano Range produces a 
condition favorable for the absorption by these formations of water 
that falls upon the outcrop or crosses it in coming from the mountains. 
To the extent that this absorbed water finds passages of escape 
through porous strata or fissures formed by deformation or in other 
ways, to that extent the water of the basin is lost. It is possible that 
such escape occurs through the nearly horizontal strata to the south, 
through the north end, or through the fissures and porous strata to 



38 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



the east. The conditions here involved are so complex and obscure 
that it is impossible to form an estimate of the amount of this leak- 
age, but it may be a large factor. 

SUMMARY. 

The foregoing analysis of the disposal of the water that falls on 
the Estancia drainage basin is summarized in the following table. 
The analysis is not exhaustive, but is sufficiently complete for prac- 
tical purposes. 

Disposal of precipitation in the Estancia Basin. 



Process. 


Quantitative importance. 




Before reaching the 
ground water. 


Before soaking into the 
ground. 






After soaking into the 
ground. Withdrawn 
by vegetation, capil- 
larity of the soil, etc. 


Great, but indefinitely 
known. 


Evaporation. 


After seeping into the rocks, from which it is re- 
turned through mountain springs. 


Small. 




After reaching the 
ground water in the 
valley fill. 


Returned through val- 
ley springs. 


Small. 




Returned by rising in 
salt basins. 


Appreciable. 




Returned by approach- 
ing near the surface in 
other localities. 


Probably appreciable, 
but indefinitely known. 


Seepage. 


Entering into the pores and crevices of the rocks 
and escaping from the basin. 


Indefinitely known. 
Possibly great. 



HEAD. 



GROUND- WATER TABLE. 



METHODS OF INVESTIGATION. 



Below a certain level the earth is saturated, every pore and crevice 
being filled with water. This level is known as the ground-water 
level or ground-water table. To ascertain its position relative to 
the surface throughout the valley the depth to water was measured 
in about 200 wells and was reported by owners, drillers, or other reli- 
able persons for many more. The measurements were made with a 
stout cord, which was marked at intervals of 3 feet. This allowed 
much more rapid work than the use of a steel tape, and the error due 
to the elasticity of the cord was less than 1 per cent. A more serious 
error, or rather ambiguity, arose from the fact that the ground is 



HEAD OF WATER. 39 

generally graded up around a well, making it uncertain as to what 
level should be taken as the natural land surface, to which all meas- 
urements were referred. The element of error is of no practical^ 
importance in the determination of the general position of the 
ground-water table, but it must be taken into account if future meas- 
urements are made for the purpose of detecting changes in the water 
level. The general results are shown on the map, forming Plate XI, 
and more specific data are given in the table on page. 67. 

RELATION OF GROUND-WATER TABLE TO THE SURFACE. 

Over an area of about 240 square miles (including the salt basins) 
the ground water stands within 25 feet of the surface, over an area 
of about 210 square miles it stands between 25 and 50 feet below the 
surface, and over an area of about 250 square miles it stands between 
50 and 100 feet below the surface. Thus, over a total area of about 
450 square miles it is less than 50 feet below the surface, and over a 
total area of at least 700 square miles it is less than 100 feet below 
the surface. The shallow-water area covers the low central plain 
and extends far up the large arroyos, especially Arroyo Mesteflo. 
The map, Plate XI, indicates the general boundaries of the areas 
of different depths to water as nearly as these could be ascertained, 
but numerous small areas in the foothills in which water is locally 
found at depths of less than 100 feet are not shown. 

SHALLOW-WATER BELT ON THE WEST SIDE. 

About a mile west of the New Mexico Central Railroad and extend- 
ing nearly due north and south for a number of miles is a narrow belt 
in which the ground water is very near the surface. This belt runs 
along the base of the cliff on the Mcintosh ranch (SE. J sec. 35, T. 8 
N., R. 8 E.), whence it extends northward to the east side of sec. 23 
and perhaps beyond. It passes southward through Antelope Spring; 
thence through sees. 23, 26, and 35 in T. 7 N., R. 8 E., to sees. 2 and 
11 in T. 6 N., R. 8 E., and to Estancia Spring; thence to sees. 26 
and 35 in the same township and through sees. 2, 3, 10, 11, and 15 
in the next township south, beyond which it was not traced. 
Along this line, wherever data were obtainable, the ground water 
was found near the surface, at depths in most places of less than 10 
feet and in some places of less than 5 feet. It can not be asserted, 
however, from the data available, that there are no interruptions in 
this shallow-water belt. 

It is not closely related to the topography, for the surface rises 
toward the west and gradually descends toward the east, yet in both 
directions the depth to water increases. Thus, on the Mcintosh 
ranch the water is virtually at the surface, but less than half a mile 
east and at a level about 25 feet lower it is 30 feet below the surface; 



40 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N". MEX. 



Su-iudg ■z>79>uz>ys&- 



at Antelope Spring it is at the surface, but 1 mile east and at a con- 
siderably lower level it is 35 feet below 
the surface; on sec. 2, T. 6 N., R. 8 E., 
it is only 8 feet below the surface, but a 
short distance east and at a lower level 
it is 20 feet below; in the west part of 
Estancia it is practically at the surface, 
but in the east part, which is lower, it is 
15 or 20 feet below; at a point 1J miles 
west of the railway, along the line between 
townships 5 and 6, it is only 4 feet below 
the surface, but at a considerably lower 
point half a mile east of the railway it is 
22 feet below; in the SW. i sec. 14, T. 5 
N., R. 8 E., it is only 14 feet below the 
surface, but 1 mile farther east and on 
ground perhaps 15 or 20 feet lower it is 
32 feet below. In some localities it would 
be possible, though perhaps not practica- 
ble, to draw the ground water from the 
shallow belt by gravity through a tunnel 
or siphon - out to the surface farther east. 
Indeed, such a scheme is being attempted 
by H. C. Williams on sec. 26, T. 6 N., 
K.8E. 

This shallow-water belt is shown on the 
map, Plate XI, and in figure 6 it is shown 
in a cross section passing through the vil- 
lage of Estancia, the only locality in which 
wells have been sunk close enough to each 
other to make such a section possible. 
The cause of this abrupt change in the 
ground-water level is not evident. At 
Antelope Spring and Mcintosh ranch it 
might be correlated with the cliff im- 
mediately west, but such an explanation 
will not hold farther south. Neither un- 
derground structure, concentric arrange- 
ment of beach materials, nor the existence 
of the salt basins appear to furnish an 
adequate explanation. 



5 > 



3^bi juaioue 

±0 3JOM5- 



INFLUENCE OF THE SALT BASINS. 

Although the ground- water table is no- 
where at any great depth throughout the 
low central portion of the valley, it does not approximate as closely 



HEAD OF WATER. 



41 



to the surface as it would if the salt basins were absent. Moreover, 
these depressions are perhaps chiefly responsible for the scarcity of 
springs and seeps in this region. 

RELATION OF GROUND- WATER TABLE TO UNDERFLOW. 

The ground-water table is not level, but slopes toward the center 
of the valley, although, in general, this slope is less steep than that 
of the land surface. An approximate idea of the amount of slope, 
or the " hydraulic gradient," can be deduced from the map, Plate XI, 
but it will be only approximate, because the topographic contours 
are based largely on aneroid readings and are therefore only approxi- 
mately correct. In the following table somewhat more accurate 
data are given for several stations whose altitudes were determined 
by railway levels: 



Slope of ground- 


water table in Estancia Valley 






Station. 


Altitude of 

surface 

above sea 

level. 


Depth to 
water. 


Altitude of 
ground- 
water 
table 

above sea 
level.a 


Difference 
in altitude 
of ground- 
water table. 


Distance 
from pre- 
ceding 
station. 


Hydraulic 
gradient, or 
slope of ' 
ground- 
water table. 




Feet. 
6 6,317 
6 6,204 
6 6,136 
6 6,093 
6,090 
d6,055 
6 6, 167 
d6,425 


Feet. 

cll5 
40 
30 
15 
35 
10 
35 
174 


Feet. 
6,202 
6,164 
6,106 
6,078 
6,055 
6,045 
6,132 
6,251 


Feet. 


Miles. 


Ft. per mile. 


Moriarty 


38(?) 
58 
28 
23 
10 
87 
119 


11.5 

8.5 

7 
12 

3 

8 
15 


3.3(?) 


Mcintosh 


6.8 


Estancia 


4.0 


Willard 


1.9 




3.3 




10.9 


Cedarvale 


8.0 








6,487 
6,312 
6,090 
d 6, 055 
6,085 
6,187 


e210 
175 
35 
10 
25 
c40 


6,277 
6,137 
6,055 
6,045 
6,060 
6,147 








Broncho > 


140 

82 
10 
15 

87 


6 
7 
3 
3 
7.5 


23.3 


Willard 


11.7 


3 miles east of Willard 


3.3 


Pato 


5.0 




11.6 






Venus 


/6,555 
6 6,204 


180(?) 
40 


6,375(?) 
6,164 








Moriarty 


211(?) 


10.5 


21. 0(?) 





a In the deep wells the artesian head is given. 

6 Gannett's Dictionary of Altitudes. 

c Approximate. Data somewhat conflicting. ' 

d Estimated. 

e Reported by A. T. & S. F. Ry. Co. 

/ Elevation relative to Moriarty, according to railway survey. 

It has already been explained that the ground water is not sta- 
tionary, but is constantly, though very slowly, moving toward the 
low central part of the valley. If no new supplies were received at 
the borders and none were removed in the center of the valley the 
ground water would in time find its level and come to rest. Other 
things being equal, the steeper the slope the more rapid is the motion 
of the ground water. On this basis a generous supply and vigorous 
underflow are indicated from the western and northwestern moun- 
tains, but a meager supply and sluggish underflow from the north end. 



42 

RELATION OF GROUND-WATER TABLE TO SUPPLY AND DISPOSAL. 

It has been seen that there is an equilibrium between the supply of 
water from the rainfall that is annually added to the underground store 
and the amount annually removed from this store by evaporation and 
seepage. Fluctuations in the ground- water level, whereby the amount 
of evaporation is regulated, tend to maintain this balance through 
changing climatic conditions. If the rainfall should decrease and 
thereby diminish the annual increment to the underground store, then, 
by the excess of loss over gain, the ground-water level would be low- 
ered. This in turn would decrease the flow of the springs and the 
evaporation from the salt basins and other shallow-water areas. Ulti- 
mately a level would be reached at which the loss would no longer be 
greater than the gain. A similar adjustment would take place if the 
rainfall remained the same while the evaporating power of the atmos- 
phere increased. If, on the other hand, the amount of rainfall should 
increase or the evaporating power decrease, or, as is more probable, if 
both these changes should take place at the same time, then the ground- 
water level would rise, new springs would burst forth, the salt basins 
would fill and even perhaps overflow, and capillary action would 
become effective over a larger area, until at last loss and gain would 
again balance. 

There are constant fluctuations in the water level as rainy and dry 
seasons alternate and rainy and dry years or periods of years succeed 
each other. In some wells fluctutations of several feet within the 
past few years were reported. Thus the boundaries of the areas hav- 
ing specified depths to water, shown in Plate XI, are not stationary, 
but expand after humid periods and again contract after periods of 
drought. In Pleistocene times, when throughout the continent the 
climate became notably humid, the water level in Estancia Valley rose 
greatly and equilibrium between increment and disposal was not estab- 
ished until a large lake had accumulated, exposing hundreds of square 
miles of water surface to continuous and unrestricted evaporation. 

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 
IN THE VALLEY FILL. 

If a well is drilled to some depth below the point where water is 
first encountered and this shallow water is cased out, the water from 
greater depths generally rises in the well at least to the level of the 
shallow water and in many places a few feet higher, but no well was 
found in Estancia Valley in which the artesian pressure from the 
deeper horizons of the valley fill is sufficient to lift the water above 
the surface of the ground, although in the shallow-water belt on the 
west side of the valley it is possible to secure flows by drifting or 
tunneling. In closed basins of the type to which Estancia Valley 



RECOVERY OF WATER. 43 

belongs flows are frequently obtained from wells drilled in the valley 
fill of the low central areas. The relatively unfavorable condition in 
Estancia Valley in regard to flows, as also in regard to springs and 
seeps, suggests that there is a relative dearth of ground water. It 
is, however, doubtful whether such an inference is justified, since 
the salt basins introduce an unusual feature which may be wholly 
responsible for the unfavorable conditions. Moreover, the slope of the 
sides is not as steep as in many basins that have flowing wells. 

IN THE ROCK FORMATIONS. 

The sedimentary rocks on the west side of the valley dip eastward 
from the mountains toward the valley, and to some extent the rocks 
on the east side also .dip toward the valley. Moreover, in some of the 
rock wells on the west slope the water rises under considerable pres- 
sure. In the railway wells at Mountain air, for example, water from 
a depth of 295 feet is reported to rise 85 feet, which brings it to about 
6,277 feet above sea level and about 200 feet above the center of the 
valley. These conditions gave rise to a hope that artesian wells 
could be obtained in the valley by drilling into the rock formations. 

Accordingly several test wells have been sunk. The deepest one, 
located 4 miles east of Estancia (SW. J sec. 10, T. 6 N., K. 9 E.), in 
the heart of the valley, passes through more than 400 feet of red shale 
and sandstone, as has already been stated, and ends in "hard gray 
rock" at a depth of nearly 800 feet. The results have not been favor- 
able. At several horizons the water rose slightly above the surface, 
but no flow of any practical consequence was obtained. 

RECOVERY OF WATER. 

In the foregoing pages it has been shown that the ground water 
constantly receives new supplies on the high land and that it migrates 
slowly but constantly toward the valley, where the excess is disposed 
of by evaporation. On its way a small amount is at present inter- 
cepted and pumped to the surface. The extent to which the water 
can be recovered by human agencies for human use is a matter of great 
practical importance. Two phases of this question will here be con- 
sidered, the yield of wells and the total amount of water available. 

YIELD OF WELLS IN THE VALLEY FILL. 

A large amount of miscellaneous information in regard to the yield 
of wells was collected, but unfortunately the bulk of this information 
is of little value because few wells have been sunk deep enough to 
reach the strongest water horizons and most of the pumping tests 
have not exceeded a few gallons per minute. A few rather conclusive 
tests were reported, however, and through the generous assistance of 
R. B. Cochran, of Estancia, several others were made in the course of 
this investigation. 



44 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCTA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

Throughout most of the valley there is no difficulty in procuring 
ample supplies for domestic purposes and for the use of stock, but 
there are a few localities where even this amount of water is hard 
to obtain. Near the north end of the valley no wells were seen, and, 
owing to the northern exposure of the deposits that here underlie 
the valley, the prospects of procuring water except at considerable 
depths are not encouraging. In general the yield of wells appears to 
be better on the west side than on the east side of the valley. 

At Willard the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. drilled 
a number of wells. The deepest one entered red sandstone at 312 
feet and was continued in this rock to 440 feet, at which depth the 
drilling was stopped. Within the first 312 feet numerous beds of 
coarse gravel supplied water freely. Fourteen 8-inch wells were 
sunk at intervals of about 120 feet to depths of approximately 200 
feet. An air lift was applied to 12 of these wells simultaneously for 
10 days and nights, practically without stopping. During this period 
each well yielded 110 gallons per minute, and the water level was tem- 
porarily lowered 3 feet. 1 .The water is used extensively on locomo- 
tive engines and for other purposes, train loads being shipped to 
points more than 50 miles east. Altogether, the consumption from 
these wells amounts to about 350,000 gallons per day, or 400 acre- 
feet per year. 

The irrigation well of E. A. Von de Veld, SE. \ sec. 21, T. 5 N., 
R. 8 E., is 8 feet in diameter and 35 feet deep, with water level about 
23 feet below the surface. This well will furnish about 80 gallons per 
minute, but the yield can no doubt be much increased by sinking 
deeper. The well of the Willard Mercantile Co., in the village of Wil- 
lard, which is 5J feet in diameter and 48 feet deep and in which the 
water level is 42 feet below the surface, has been tested at 40 gallons 
per minute. 

The open well of L. Knight, NE. \ sec. 1,T.5N.,R.8K, is about 

45 feet long and 9 feet wide, and extends to a bed of gravel that is 32 
feet below the surface and 10 feet below the water level. It yields 
about 90 gallons per minute. Several wells have also been drilled to 
greater depths, and, though they have not yet been tested, the beds 
of water-bearing gravel that they penetrated give promise of more 
generous yield. 

The well of R. N. Reagan, SW. \ sec. 2, T. 6 N., R. 8 E., is a dug 
hole, 6 feet by 4 feet, to a depth of 31 feet, below which it is an uncased 
12-inch drilled hole that goes to 115 feet beneath the surface. The 
section consists chiefly of gravelly clay to a depth of 60 feet, below 
which "concrete" is reported. The water level is 16 feet below the 
surface, and downward from this level more or less seepage is received, 
although the strongest water horizons are reported to be at 60 feet 

i The data in regard to the test were given by John Knowles, who has charge of pumping tests and con- 
struction for the railway company. 



RECOVERY OE WATER. 45 

and at the bottom. When completed this well was reported to have 
been pumped at more than 100 gallons per minute, which rate of 
pumping lowered the water level about 16 feet, but when tested in 
the summer of 1909 it yielded scarcely 40 gallons per minute with the 
same lowering of the water level. The well of Mr. Hawkins, sec. 14, 
T. 6 N., R. 8 E., is also reported to have been tested at about 100 gal- 
lons per minute. 

On the premises of Mrs. Angus McGillivray, in Estancia, two test 
wells were put down — a 6-inch well to a depth of 37 feet and a 10-inch 
well to a depth of 233 feet ending in hard rock. According to the 
driller, the largest supply of water was found at a depth of 33 feet 
where the drill entered a 4-foot bed of gravel, from which the water 
rose to a point 5 feet below the surface. With a suction pipe extend- 
ing 16 feet below the water level, the 6-inch well was successfully 
pumped at a rate approximating 200 gallons per minute. 

In the test wells 4 miles east of Estancia the most water was found, 
according to J. L. Mayo, the driller, in a bed of gravel at a depth of 
about 215 feet, but pumping 15 gallons per minute from this source is 
said to have lowered the water level in the well considerably. The 
well of Oscar Hadley, 3 miles north and 4 miles east of Estancia, 
which is 94 feet deep, is reported to have been tested at about 20 gal- 
lons per minute without lowering the water perceptibly. The well of 
B. W. Honnold, SE. \ sec. 21, T. 7 N., K. 9 E., which is 140 feet 
deep, is reported to have been tested at 18 gallons; the 6-inch well of 
P. M. Rutherford, SW. \ sec. 27 in the same township, which is 104 
feet deep, at 40 gallons; and the well of Mr. Campbell, about 5 miles 
northeast of Estancia, at 40 gallons. Several other tests of this kind 
were reported. On a number of the old ranches water has in the past 
been pumped from wells with steam engines. 

Many wells, especially the dug wells on the alluvial slopes, end in 
clay from which the water seeps. Many others, in particular the 
cased wells in the central portion of the valley, end in fine sand, which, 
though yielding more freely than the clay, likewise gives up its water 
with difficulty and tends to fill the well whenever rapid pumping is 
attempted. Neither material can be relied upon to furnish water in 
abundance. For successful wells yielding large supplies it is in general 
necessary to find beds of gravel, and the coarser and cleaner the gravel 
the more successful will be the wells. Under "Geology," page 17, it 
was explained that the beds of gravel have little continuity or regu- 
larity, and that a bed encountered in one well may be entirely absent 
in another not far distant. 

YIELD OF WELLS IN THE ROCK FORMATIONS. 

Many wells, especially those near the mountains, end in rock. 
On the east side the water-bearing rock consists chiefly of sandstone, 
but on the west side limestone is more abundant. The yield of 



46 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

these wells is ordinarily adequate for culinary purposes and for the 
use of stock, but such tests as have been made do not promise large 
supplies. At Mountainair one 8-inch railroad well yields 18 gallons 
per minute, and another railroad well only 14 gallons, while the 
6-inch town-site well yields 28 gallons per minute. Each of the wells 
is more than 300 feet deep and in each the stated rate of pumping 
lowers the water level approximately 100 feet. In the test wells 
east of Estancia little water was found after rock was encountered. 
At the box factory, in the north part of Estancia, a well 6 inches in 
diameter and 120 feet deep was pumped at the rate of 18 gallons per 
minute, the water being lowered about 35 feet. The well of H. C. 
Williams, NE. J sec. 26, T. 6 N., K. 8 E., is perhaps the best rock 
well that was reported. Below the depth of 233 feet it is said to 
pass through 70 feet of soft sandstone, and pumping at the rate of 
40 gallons per minute is reported to have lowered the water in the 
well only 12 feet. In the last two wells mentioned there is some 
doubt as to whether the water comes from rock strata. 

AVAILABLE QUANTITY OF GROUND WATER. 

The rate at which wells yield water is a question of vital impor- 
tance in determining the feasibility of recovering ground water on a 
large scale, but, contrary to the general supposition, it gives little 
information as to the total quantity available. This quantity is 
not inexhaustible, as is so freely assumed. So far as large pumping 
operations, such as would- be required for extensive irrigation, are 
concerned its limits are sharply drawn. The amount of ground 
water obtainable can not be determined by pumping a few hundred 
gallons per minute from a well for a short period, for the same reason 
that the quantity of water in a lake can not be determined by apply- 
ing to it the same pump; and to proceed on the theory that an 
unlimited amount of ground water is available for irrigation is as 
unwise as to plan an irrigation project without reference to the flow 
of the stream upon which it depends. The essential difference is that 
the flow of the stream can be readily and accurately measured, but 
no such precise methods can be applied to ground water, and there- 
fore much more caution must be used in carrying out a project that 
depends upon ground water. 

Some idea of the total quantity of water that is stored under- 
ground can be obtained by considering the sections of wells that 
have been drilled. The average thickness of the water-bearing beds 
can be multiplied by the total area over wh:"ch they occur, and this 
product by the percentage of pore space in the material comprising 
these beds. But such an estimate will give little information that 
is of practical value because withdrawals in excess of the new con- 
tributions will lower the water level, increase the cost of pumping, 



QUALITY OF WATER. 47 

and eventually lead to disaster. Estimates of possible annual recov- 
ery by man must therefore be based on the annual increment or 
on the surplus annually disposed of by nature, and not on the total 
quantity now stored in the earth. 

Unfortunately the quantity of water that is annually available 
in Estancia Valley can not be accurately predicted. From the dis- 
cussion under the heading " Source and disposal" (p. 34), it appears 
that the surplus now disposed of by nature through evaporation 
from the salt basins and other areas of shallow water is a substantial 
quantity, probably amounting to many thousands of acre-feet each 
year. Perhaps most of this surplus could be intercepted in wells 
and pumped to the surface, but it can hardly be hoped that more 
than this surplus is annually available. 

QUALITY. 

SOLIDS DISSOLVED IN WATEB,. 

The rocks which lie near the surface are exposed to weathering 
agencies that disintegrate and decompose them, thereby forming 
certain mineral compounds that are more or less soluble in water. 
The water which falls as rain contains little or no dissolved mineral 
matter, but when it enters the ground and percolates through the 
earth it gradually takes into solution those soluble substances with 
which it comes in contact, and consequently ground water always 
contains dissolved mineral matter. So long as this matter remains 
in solution it is invisible, but when the water is evaporated, as in a 
tea kettle or steam boiler or on the surface of the salt basins in 
Estancia Valley, it is left behind and forms a crust or scale. Ground 
waters differ greatly in the total amount of substances they contain 
in solution and in the proportions of the different kinds of substances. 
When, by evaporation of the water or some other cause, these sub- 
stances are thrown out of solution, they form mineral salts, such as 
calcium carbonate (limestone), calcium sulphate (gypsum), sodium 
carbonate (black alkali), sodium sulphate (Glauber's salt), and 
sodium chloride (common salt). 

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION. 

During the progress of the field work 84 samples of water were col- 
lected and examined for their content of the carbonates, bicarbon- 
ates, sulphates, and chlorides. They were chosen from those wells 
or other sources which would aid most in interpreting the quality of 
the ground water for the entire region. They were obtained from all 
parts of the valley, but were taken in largest numbers in the central 
area, where the mineral content varies greatly within short distances 
and where its consideration is important in connection with irrigation. 
86378°— wsp 275—11 4 



48 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



The assays were made in the field by means of the apparatus and 
methods described in Water-Supply Paper No. 151 . In order to have 
some check upon the work, and also to have a basis for judging the 
relative amounts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, a 
single sample was sent to Prof. J. R. Bailey, of the University of 
Texas, for complete analysis in the laboratory. This sample was 
taken from the well of H. N. Summers, 6 miles east of Estancia, in the 
region where it was especially desirable to know the relative amounts 
of the bases in the deeper waters. The following table gives" the 
complete analysis, and, for purposes of comparison, the field assay of a 
sample taken from the same well on the same day: 

Analysis and field assay of water from well of H. N. Surnmers, 6 miles east of Estancia. 



Ions. 



Parts per million. 



Sample 

assayed 

in the 

field. 



Sample an- 
alyzed in 
the labora- 
tory. 



Total solids . 
Silica (Si0 2 ) 
Iron 



(Fe). 



Aluminum ( Al) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium (Na) 

Potassium (K) 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) . . . 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

ehlorine(Cl) 

Temporary hardness as CaC0 3 . 
Free carbon dioxide (CO2) 



243 
553 



1,956 
19 
.05 
Trace. 
200 
114 
274 
3.8 
.0 
306 
755 
390 
251 
8.8 



The field determination agrees closely with the laboratory analysis 
in the content of chlorine, but there are considerable discrepancies 
in the bicarbonate and sulphate determinations. The bicarbonate 
determination is a simple volumetric process with a definite end 
point, and the assays probably gave results that are fairly accurate 
relative to each other. Despite these discrepancies, the field assays 
are of value, especially in throwing light on the problem of the 
utility of the" water for irrigation, a problem in which it is desirable 
to have tests from as many localities as possible, but in which great 
precision is not required. 

In the table on page 71 are given the results of the 84 field 
assays and also of 19 tests of water from railway wells, furnished by 
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. 

CHLORINE. 



In general the chlorine content of these waters is proportionate to 
the amount of common salt that would be deposited by their evapo- 
ration. The ground waters of Estancia Valley differ widely in this 



QUALITY OF WATER. 49 

respect, the samples analyzed ranging from 7 parts to 16,442 parts 
per million in the amount of chlorine that they contain. In the 
central portion of the valley, where the amount ol chlorine decreases 
with the depth, only tests of shallow water are shown on the map, the 
analyses of samples from deeper cased wells not being used for this 
purpose. 

The analyses plotted on the map show the following conditions: 
First, the water underlying the western slope (including nearly all of 
the western alluvial slope and most of the littoral zone) contains 
small quantities of common salt, the chlorine content being uniformly 
less than 25 parts per million; second, in this large area the amount 
of salt does not increase notably from the foothills toward the center; 
third, throughout an area in the center of the valley the chlorine con- 
tent is very great, some of the shallow water being so salty that it 
can not be used for watering stock; fourth, between the first and the 
second areas there is a zone of fairly pure water which averages 
about 3 miles in width but has a tendency to extend some distance 
up the arroyos; and fifth, the water is somewhat higher in its con- 
tent of salt on the east side of the valley than on the corresponding 
west slope. The transition from the fairly pure water of the inter- 
mediate zone to the strongly saline water in the central area is remark- 
ably abrupt, so that on the west side, where there are many wells, it 
was possible to outline with considerable accuracy the limits of the 
area in which the water has more than 1,000 parts of chlorine. The 
abruptness of this transition is shown by assay No. 59 (J. B. Striplin) 
and assay No. 61 (J. W. Kooken), given in the table (p. 72). The 
first sample, coming from a well in the intermediate area, showed 
only 219 parts of chlorine; the second, taken from a well a quarter of 
a mile farther east, showed 5,276 parts. 

In the central area the shallowest water is the most strongly 
saline, and the water from deeper sources is, as a rule, much better. 
However, no definite law of variation with depth could be established, 
and it is altogether probable that in some of the deeper wells a certain 
amount of shallow saline water is admitted by imperfect casing and 
mingles with the deep water that forms the principal supply. Within 
the area in which the shallow water contains more than 1,000 parts, 
9 samples were taken from cased wells in which, as far as could be 
ascertained, the water came from more than 25 feet below the ground- 
water level. In these 9 samples the chlorine content ranged from 
234 parts to 932 parts and averaged 595 parts, whereas 6 samples of 
shallow water within the same area ranged from 1,165 parts to 
16,442 parts and averaged 7,063 -parts, or more than 12 times as 
much as in the deeper waters. These relations are shown graphically 
in figure 7. 



50 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



Finally, it is important to note that the deep waters in the central 
area are much saltier than the waters from the wells on the surround- 
ing slopes. Thus, 34 samples were taken on the west side of the 
valley in the area of less, than 25 parts per million, which includes 
nearly all of the extensive region lying west of the New Mexico 
Central Railroad. In these 34 widely distributed samples the chlo- 
rine content ranged from 7 to 25 parts and averaged 16 parts, a result 
which should be compared with the' assays of the nine samples of 



FEET 

o 



40 
it U 
"m 60 

O h 

"2 

o > ioo 
a. i 

Si 120 

° OI40 

Eg 

a- 3 160 
180 



CHLORINE CONTENT (PARTS PER MILLION) 

Figure 7.— Diagram showing decrease of chlorine with increase in depth of the waters of the central 

area of Estancia Valley. 

deep waters in the central area in which the chlorine ranged from 234 
to 932 parts and averaged 595 parts, or 37 times as much. 

CAUSE OF SALINITY. 



The salinity of the water in the central area results from the proc- 
ess described under " Source and disposal." The ground water is 
constantly being replenished at the borders by rainfall; responding 
to the force of gravity, it constantly moves valley ward; and in the 
low central area the accumulating surplus is constantly coming to the 
surface and being disposed of by evaporation. In its migration 
through the earth it picks up a load of salt which it takes into solu- 
tion, and when it evaporates it leaves this salt behind, thus adding to 
the salinity of the remaining water or to the amount of alkali in the 
soil. 



QUALITY OF WATER. 51 

But the precise reason for the existing conditions is not so evident. 
In most of the area in which the sheet of saline water occurs the 
ground-water level is too far below the surface for capillarity to be 
effective in drawing up ground water within the reach of evaporation. 
Thus, in the wells from which were taken the six samples that were 
tested, the depth to water ranges from 7 to 36 feet, while capillarity 
is probably not effective for depths of more than 5 feet and quite 
certainly not for depths of more than 10 feet. Moreover, the salts 
drawn up by capillary action would be deposited near the surface 
where evaporation would occur, and how they would be carried back 
to contribute to the salinity of the ground water is not obvious. It is 
also necessary to account for the salt content in the deeper waters at 
the center. The most reasonable hypothesis is that at various hori- 
zons in the valley fill of the central area there are beds impregnated 
with salt deposited by evaporating waters at the time they were 
formed, arid that afterwards these beds became buried under new 
accumulations of valley fill. It is not unlikely that the shallow 
sheet of brine coincides approximately with a buried salt deposit laid 
down at the bottom of the ancient lake at a certain stage of its 
existence. This hypothesis would also explain the sharp boundary 
of the area. 

SULPHATES. 

The amount of the sulphate radicle in these waters is a measure of 
the sodium and calcium sulphates that they deposit on evaporation. 
The field apparatus can not well be used for determining less than 30 
parts or more than 625 parts per million of this constituent, 1 but the 
waters in Estancia Valley range from less than this minimum to con- 
siderably more than this maximum. On the map (PI. XI) the sul- 
phate content is shown by blue figures, letters, and lines. Samples 
that contained less than 30 parts are represented by the letter "S," 
samples that contained between 100 and 625 parts are represented 
by the letter "M," and samples that contained more than 625 parts 
are represented by the letter "L." Only for those samples that come 
between 30 and 100 parts are the parts per million given in numbers, 
because it is only within this range that the field determinations have 
considerable accuracy. As with chlorine, the tests of samples from 
deeper cased wells are not plotted on the map. 

With certain exceptions, the distribution of sulphates is analogous 
to that of chlorine, and the reasons for this distribution are no doubt 
in general the same. The western slope is underlain by water that 
has a small sulphate content, and in which there is no noticeable 
increase of sulphates toward the center, but the central area is 

1 If water containing more than 625 parts is diluted with distilled water, its content of sulphate can be 
determined. This was done with the samples from Encino and Pinos Wells. See pp. 71 and 83. 



52 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OP ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

underlain by water that is rich in sulphates, and between these two 
areas is a narrow intermediate zone. Then, too, the sulphate con- 
tent is greater on the east side than on the corresponding west slope, 
and the deep water in the central area contains less sulphate than 
the shallow water in the same area, though much more than the 
water that underlies the west slope. 

An important exception to the parallelism between the chloride 
and sulphate contents, however, is found in the southwestern part 
of the region, where the ground water contains a large amount of 
sulphates, but only small quantities of chlorides. This condition is 
well shown on the map (PL XI)* by the radical divergence of the 
chloride and sulphate lines when they reach the south end of the val- 
ley. The large sulphate content is clearly due to the presence of 
gypsum in the derivative rocks, for in the escarpment of the Mesa 
Jumanes a bed of gypsum 100 feet thick is exposed. It will be 
observed that the effect of this gypsum bed does not extend far 
north, which is another indication that the principal ground-water 
supply comes from the western mountains. 

CARBONATES AND BICARBONATES. 

None of the samples that were tested showed an alkaline reaction 
with phenolphthalein, which fact shows the general absence in these 
waters of the carbonate radicle and hence of sodium carbonate, the 
injurious black alkali. This is not surprising, in view of the abun- 
dance of gypsum, which reacts with sodium carbonate and precipitates 
the carbonate radicle in the form of calcium carbonate. The phe- 
nolphthalein test does not prove the absence of sodium bicarbonate, 
but the abundance of gypsum does not favor its presence. 

In the samples that were tested the bicarbonate radicle ranges 
from 97 to 873 parts per million, a much smaller range than that of 
the chloride and sulphate radicles. The chlorides and sulphates are 
much more readily soluble than the carbonates, which, together 
with the carbon dioxide present in the water, produce bicarbonates. 
Nevertheless, in the deposits on the west slope, except at the south 
end, chlorides and sulphates are so rare and carbonates (limestones 
and calcareous cement) so abundant that the water beneath the 
west slope contains much larger amounts of the bicarbonate radicle 
than of the chloride and sulphate radicles. But as the water per- 
colates through the buried lake beds or other deposits in the central 
areas that are impregnated with salts, it redissolves large quantities 
of the soluble chlorides and sulphates, but only minor quantities of 
the carbonates, because it has already taken them up almost to the 
point of saturation ; hence, in the central area the relative amounts of 
these ingredients are reversed, the total of bicarbonates being nearly 
the same, but the sulphates and chlorides having increased enor- 
mously. 



QUALITY OF WATER. 53 

BASES. 

The principal bases, or positive radicles, are calcium, magnesium, 
sodium, and potassium. The relative amounts of these were not 
determined in the field, but the following inferences can be made. 
In the less highly mineralized water on the west slope, calcium and 
magnesium, derived from the carbonates, predominate greatly over 
sodium, while in the water near the south end, and to some extent 
also on the east side, the principal base is calcium derived from the 
sulphate; but in the central area large quantities of sodium chloride 
are taken up, thus increasing the content of sodium, so that in the 
strongly saline waters sodium is much more abundant than calcium 
or magnesium. Moreover, sodium sulphate is more soluble than 
calcium sulphate, which fact also tends to increase the relative 
amounts of sodium in the central area. 

EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS. 

Small amounts of the constituents commonly found in natural 
waters are not harmful to health. Chlorides are not objectionable 
in drinking water if only 50 to 100 parts are present, but amounts 
clearly preceptible to the taste render water unpalatable. Magnesic 
or sodic sulphated waters are laxative, and excessive magnesium or 
sodium content renders water unfit for man or beast. The worst 
form of alkali water — that containing alkaline carbonates — was not 
found in this region. 

Calcium and magnesium render water hard and therefore poor for 
toilet and laundry uses. Bicarbonates and an equivalent quantity 
of calcium and magnesium are removed from water by boiling, but 
the calcium and magnesium in excess of this amount, such as would 
be present in gypsiferous waters, can not be precipitated by boiling. 
Sodium and potassium do not consume soap and therefore do not 
make water hard. 

Calcium and magnesium compounds are the principal constituents 
of boiler scale. Sodium and potassium compounds do not form scale, 
but when they occur in large quantities they cause foaming and 
priming in boilers. 

Water with relatively large amounts of most kinds of dissolved 
mineral matter is tolerated by plants. Among the common sodium 
salts the most injurious is sodium carbonate and the least injurious 
sodium sulphate; sodium chloride occupies an intermediate position. 
The effect of dissolved solids in irrigation water is more fully discussed 
under the next heading — " Irrigation." 



54 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

IRRIGATION. 

Much of the water that falls as rain or snow is lost or is of very small 
•service in producing vegetation useful to man. If only a small part 
of this water that is now lost can be recovered and applied to growing 
crops it will greatly increase the agricultural product of the valley. 
Recovery is possible by storing storm water and by recovering 
ground water. 

STORAGE OF STORM WATER. 

The floods that from time to time come down the large arroyos 
and spread out over their extensive flat bottoms provide a sort of 
natural irrigation which makes these arroyos the most fertile and 
productive portions of the valley, and for this reason they bear such 
appropriate names as Arroyo Mestefio (Ranchers' Draw) and Arroyo 
Fecundo (Fertile Draw). The utility of this flood water could be 
increased if it were stored in reservoirs and applied in an economical 
manner at the time it is most needed. Only small beginnings in 
this direction have thus far been made, and without doubt further 
development would be found profitable, although there are handi- 
caps in the scarcity of good reservoir sites and in the capricious 
nature of the floods. 

UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER. 
PRESENT DEVELOPMENT. 

At the time the valley was visited, in the summer of 1909, little 
had been accomplished in the way of irrigating with ground water, 
although a number of gardens and other small plats were being irri- 
gated from this source by means of windmills, and somewhat more 
ambitious projects were being undertaken by S. Spore, L. Knight, 
E. A. Von de Veld, and H. C. Williams. 

The plant of S. Spore is located 3 miles east of Estancia, on sec. 9, 
T. 6 N., R. 9 E. The water is provided by a large hole dug 23 feet 
below the surface, or about 15 feet below the water level, and one or 
more deeper drilled wells which discharge into the bottom of the dug 
hole. It is lifted by a chain and bucket elevator whose capacity is 
rated at 800 gallons per minute, the power being furnished by an 
8-horsepower gasoline engine. The plant was not seen in operation. 
It was reported that considerable water had been developed, but that 
it is saline in character. 

The plant of L. Knight is located 4 miles south of Estancia, on the 
NE. -J sec. 1, T. 5 N., R. 8 E. A hole, about 45 by 9 feet in size, has 
been dug 32 feet below the surface, or about 10 feet below the water 
level, and several deeper wells have been drilled. The yield of the 
dug well is about 90 gallons per minute; the drilled wells had not been 



IRRIGATION. 55 

tested. The water is lifted from the dug hole into an earth Teservoir 
by means of a chain and bucket elevator propelled by a gasoline 
engine. The capacity of the elevator is rated at 250 gallons per 
minute and the engine at 4| horsepower. 

The plant of E. A. Von de Veld is located 7 miles northwest of 
Willard, in the SE. \ sec. 21, T. 5 N., R. 8 E. The water is obtained 
from a well 8 feet in diameter and 35 feet deep, which extends about 
12 feet below the water level, and will yield about 80 gallons per 
minute. The water is lifted by a chain and bucket elevator propelled 
by a gasoline engine. The capacity of the elevator is rated at 160 
gallons per minute. 

The farm of H. C. Williams, 2\ miles south of Estancia, is in the 
shallow-water belt, and a ditch has here been dug for the purpose of 
leading the ground water out upon lower land by gravity. In the 
deep well the water rises to within 3 \ feet of the surface. No pump- 
ing plant has been installed. 

POSSIBILITIES OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT. 

The data already given seem to indicate that without seriously de- 
pleting the present supply, enough water can be withdrawn annually 
from the underground reservoir to increase materially the total pro- 
duction of the valley, but that, on the other hand the supply is not 
sufficient to irrigate more than a small part of the total acreage of 
arable land. If it is once proved that pumping for irrigation is feas- 
ible and profitable, the danger of overdevelopment will become 
imminent. 

PROPER TYPE OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS. 

Irrigation with surface water has necessitated large cooperative 
projects, but the problem of irrigating with ground water, even 
on a large scale, is essentially different. In Estancia Valley each 
farmer should develop his own supply, install his own pumping plant, 
and construct his own reservoirs and system of distribution. This 
method of development will insure a maximum supply with a mini- 
mum lowering of the head, and will involve the least lift and the 
least loss in distribution. The only respect in which cooperation 
may be found profitable will be in the installation of a central power 
plant. 

PROPER TYPES OF WELLS. 

Where large supplies are required, as for irrigation, they can best 
be obtained by drilling in search of thick beds of clean, coarse gravel 
that will yield freely, sinking, if necessary, at least to the bottom of 
the valley fill. There are three reasons why deep-drilled wells are likely 
to yield much more water than shallow wells that stop a short dis- 



56 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

tance below the ground-water level — first, the thickest and best beds 
of gravel may occur at any depth and the probabilities are, therefore, 
that they will not be found by shallow wells; second, of two similar 
beds the one at a. considerable depth below the ground-water level 
will yield much more than the one only slightly below this level, 
because the water in the deeper bed is under much greater artesian 
pressure; third, if a deep well is properly finished with perforated 
casing, it can simultaneously receive supplies from all water-bearing 
beds that it penetrates. 

If a single well will not yield enough, a group of wells ca'n be drilled. 
A large pump can then be inserted at the bottom of a centrally 
located pit dug to the ground-water level or somewhat lower, and 
suction pipes from all the wells can be connected with it; or, if it is 
desired to use a chain-and-bucket elevator, the central pit can be 
sunk to a considerable depth below the ground-water level and the 
drilled wells can be connected by horizontal tunnels or pipes with 
the bottom of the pit, into which they will then discharge. Since 
the cost of pumping increases with the lift, it will be economy to have 
so many wells that the water in them will not be greatly lowered by 
pumping. In either system above described some expense will be 
involved in connecting the various wells. 

For large supplies, beds of very fine sand should be cased out, be- 
cause this sand yields its water slowly and causes trouble by rising 
in the wells. Screens can be employed to shut out the sand more or 
less effectually, but they are likely to become clogged in a short time 
and to require much attention. Difficulty with sand in wells can be 
reduced to a minimum by pumping slowly or by having a large num- 
ber of wells so connected that water is drawn only at a slow rate from 
each. 

Where no satisfactory water-bearing bed can be found and where 
the shallow water is not saline, it may be possible to develop valuable 
supplies from large dug wells or from systems of infiltration galleries, 
or it may be feasible to bring up the total yield by combining these 
with deep wells. If possible the maximum yield of the system of 
wells should be kept much greater than the capacity of the pumps, as 
this will reduce to a minimum the cost of lifting the water, the wear 
and tear of the machinery, and in some cases the deterioration of the 
wells. 

GRAVITY INFILTRATION DITCHES. 

The fact that it is possible to lead water by gravity from the 
shallow-water belt on the west side out upon lower ground to the 
east makes this scheme for irrigating appear very attractive, but it 
is not believed that enough water can be recovered in this way to 
justify the necessary expense of construction. The same money will 



IRRIGATION. 



57 



be better invested in wells and a pumping plant with which a larger, 
more reliable, and more elastic supply can be obtained. Prof. 
Slichter discusses ditches of this type and makes the following con- 
cluding statements: 1 

It should be noted that Very few infiltration or underflow canals are in actual use 
for irrigation purposes. There are many pumping plants in use for irrigation which 
have turned out to be both practicable and financially profitable; but the attempts 
to secure ground water by gravity have usually proved disappointing, and there are 
numerous abandoned underflow canals in many parts of the West. 

COST OF PUMPING. 

In estimating the cost of the water it is necessary to take into 
account the original cost of the wells, pumps, engines, reservoirs, 
ditches, and other equipment, and the cost of operation, which 
includes fuel, oil, repairs, labor, and other items. In considering 
the original cost as a factor in the cost of a unit quantity of water, 
it is most convenient to estimate the amount of deterioration of the 
plant in one year and to add this to the annual interest on the total 
amount invested in the plant. The sum should then be divided by 
the number of units of water pumped in a year. Prof. Slichter 
advises that the charge for depreciation and repairs should not be 
estimated at less than 10 per cent of the first cost of the plant. 

The following tables give the results of a number of tests of small 
pumping plants in Arkansas Valley, Kans., 2 and in the Rio Grande 
valley, N. Mex. 3 

Tests of small pumping plants, Arkansas Valley, Kans. 



Kind of pump. 



No. 3 centrifugal 

Menge 

Two vertical, 6 by 16 inch 

cylinder. 

Chain and bucket 

Do 

No. 4 centrifugal 

No. 3 centrifugal 

No. 14 centrifugal 

Two horizontal, 5 by 5 inch 

cylinders. 
No. 4 centrifugal 



Horse- 




Price of 


Total 
lift. 


power of 


Fuel used. 


fuel per 


engine. 




gallon. 








Feet. 


6 


Gasoline . . 


$0.22 


22.1 


10 


...do 


.20 


15.5 


ii 


...do 


.22 


15.06 


7 


...do 


.21 


17.0 


24 


...do 


.22 


15.8 


10 


...do 


.12} 


22.13 


6 


...do 


- 12| 


17.60 


SO 


Coal 


5 4. 00 


23.00 


3i 


Gasoline . . 


. 12i 


21.7 


5 


...do 


•121- 


21.47 



Yield of 
well per 
minute. 



Cost of 
fuel per 
ucre-foot i 
of water. 



Gallons. 
272 
394 
91 

540 
215 
363 
198 
2,300 
96 

420 



$2.93 
2.90 
3.75 

1.37 
2.78 
2.10 
1.67 
.85 
1.09 

1.20 



Cost of 
fuel for 
each foot 
that an 
acre-foot 
is lifted. 



$0.13 
.19 
.25 



.18 
.09 
.09 
.04 
.05 



i Water-Supply Paper IT. S. Geol. Survey No. 184, 1906, p. 22. 

2 Slichter, C. S., The underflow in Arkansas Valley in Western Kansas: Water-Supply Paper U. S. 
Geol. Survey No. 153, 1906, pp. 55 and 56. 

3 Slichter C S., Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande Valley: Water-Supply Paper TJ. S. 
Geol. Survey No. 141 , 1905 pp. 34 and 35. 

4 An acre-foot contains 325,850 gallons of water, which is enough to cover 1 acre to the depth of 1 foot. 
6 Price per ton. 



58 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

Principal data derived from tests of Rio Grande pumping plants. 



Horse- 
power. 


Fuel used. 


Price 

of 
fuel, a 


Total 
lift. 


Yield 
per 

minute. 


Cost of 
plant. 


Inter- 
est and 

depre- 
ciation 


Labor 
and 
other 
cost 


Fuel 
cost 
per 
acre- 


Total 
cost 
per 
acre- 














hour.b 


hour. 


foot. 


foot. 








Feet. 


Gallons. 












10 




$0.05 


38.93 


378 


$1,200 


$0. 108 


$0. 050 


$3.43 


$5. 75 


8 




.14 
.14 
.03 


30.70 
27.80 
36.70 


269 
258 
938 


800 
• 800 
3,000 


.072 
.072 
.270 


.120 
.140 
.180 


2.26 
1.58 
.70 


6.13 


54 


do 


6.02 


28 2 


Crude oil 


3.17 


22 


Gasoline 


.14 


41.45 


1,325 


2,200 


.198 


.150 


1.43 


2.79 


15 


do 


.14 


35.87 


658 


1,500 


.135 


.150 


1.73 


4.10 


5 


do 


.17 


45.58 


131 


1,200 


.108 


.120 


3.73 


13.20 


12 


do 


.17 


40.30 


658 


1,200 


.108 


.150 


1.34 


3.47 


21 


do 


.17 


40.45 


725 


1,800 


.162 


.150 


2.52 


4.87 


8 


do 


.17 


26.85 


648 


900 


.081 


.120 


1.48 


3.16 


12 


do 


.17 


34.77 


325 


1,200 


.108 


.150 


5.14 


9.57 


8 


do 


.17 


36.05 


271 


800 


.072 


.120 


5.10 


8.95 


10 


Wood 


2.00 
.17 

2.25 
.17 
.17 


34. 16 
43.35 
29.55 
23.89 
35.26 


351 

464 

1,000 

837 

191 


1,200 

2,000 

1,600 

992 

992 


.108 
.180 
.144 
.090 
.090 


.180 
.150 
.200 
.090 
.090 


3.47 
4.34 
2.83 
1.04 
5.80 


7.91 


28 




8.19 


20 


Wood 


4.70 


12 


Gasoline 


2.21 


12 


do 


10.90 


12 


do 


.17 


32.36 


750 


992 


.090 


.090 


1.16 


2.46 



a The price of gasoline given is for 1 gallon, the price of electricity for 1 kilowatt-hour, the price of wood 
for 1 cord. 
b The depreciation and repairs are calculated at 10 per cent of the original cost and the interest at 8 per cent. 

As nearly as can be estimated from rather indefinite data obtained 
in regard to the plant of E. A. Von de Veld, northwest of Willard, 
the cost for fuel is about $3.50 per acre-foot. The water is here 
lifted with a 160-gallon chain and bucket elevator, the average lift 
being about 30 feet, and the price paid for the gasoline was reported 
to be 31 cents per gallon. According to these data, for each foot 
that an acre-foot of water is lifted the cost is about 11§ cents and 
the consumption of gasoline about 0.38 gallon. With the present 
capacity of the well, one-fifth of an acre-foot can be drawn conven- 
iently in one full day; and on this basis if the plant is operated 100 
days it will consume $65 worth of gasoline and provide enough 
water to cover 20 acres to a depth of 1 foot or 10 acres to a depth 
of 2 feet. With gasoline bought at minimum wholesale prices 
and with more careful adjustments between the capacities of 
engine, pump, and well, the cost for fuel can be reduced materially, 
but the above figures are believed to be valuable in giving an idea 
of what has been done in practical work. 

In a discussion of the cost of pumping in Arkansas Valley, Kans., 
the following statement is made by Prof. Slichter in regard to gas- 
producer plants: 

If plants of from 20 to 50 horsepower are constructed, as I believe will inevitably 
be the case in the near future, the cheapest power will probably be found in the use 
of coal in small gas-producer plants in connection with gas engines. These small 
gas-producer plants are largely automatic in action and can be operated by anyone. 
With hard coal or coke or charcoal at $8 per ton, the cost of power would be less than 
one-half cent per horsepower for one hour, or only one-fifth of the cost of power from 
gasoline at 22 cents a gallon. The writer anticipates no difficulty, therefore, in 



IRRIGATION. 



59 



keeping the cost of water below 60 to 75 cents an acre-foot for fuel, or below $1.25 
to $1.50 per acre-foot for total expense. 1 Hundreds of such plants have been put in 
use in England during the past ten or more years, and they are in charge of unskilled 
labor. These gas-producer plants are used in England for a great variety of purposes, 
such as power for agricultural machinery and for small electric-light plants for country 
estates, etc. They are used in as small units as 5 horsepower. 

In this country the producer-gas plants have been in use for several years, and at 
the present moment they are fast taking the place of steam power in new plants. The 
cost of a producer plant and gas engine is about the same as the cost of a steam engine 
and boiler of same size when everything is included, but the cost of power from the 
producer-gas plant is very much less than that obtained from small steam engines. 

In producer plants ranging upward from 100 horsepower, a style of plant may be 
installed in which soft coal or lignite may be successfully used. This still further 
cuts down the cost of power. In fact, large plants of this type furnish the cheapest 
artificial power that has yet been devised. The saving is not only in fuel, but also 
in labor, as one man is capable of running a 300-horsepower plant. 

In Estancia Valley gas-producer plants should be installed only 
after sufficiently large supplies of water have been developed to 
insure their success. A central power plant which will furnish an 
electric current for operating pumps on a number of farms may 
prove the most economical method of lifting water. 

WINDMILLS. 

Much has been written on irrigation with windmills. Their 
obvious advantage is that they utilize energy supplied by nature 
free of charge, but their original cost and the cost for oil and repairs 
are by no means negligible. Their greatest disadvantage lies in 
their dependence upon the wind, which may not blow at the time 
the water is most needed. They are best adapted to those parts of 
the valley where great depth to water or small yield permit of irriga- 
tion on only a small scale. 

The following data, taken from the Yearbook of the Department 
of Agriculture for 1907, will give some conception of what can be 
done with windmills. If the lift is increased or decreased, the 
amount of water that can be pumped will be decreased or increased 
in about the same ratio. 



Work done by a 12-foot windmill. 



Velocity of wind in miles per hour. 


Height 

water 

was 

lifted. 


Quantity 
of water 
pumped 
per hour. 


6 


Feet. 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 


Gallons. 
89 76 


8 


269 28 


10 


501 16 


12 


718 08 


17 ■_. 


1,271.60 
1,353.88 


18 





1 It should be remembered that this statement is made for the Arkansas Valley, where the water is near 
the surface. 



60 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



Work done by windmills of different sizes. 



Size and type of windmill. 





Average 


Height 




Time 


wind ve- 


water 


Quantity 




locity per 


was 


pum 




hour. 


lifted. 




Days. 


Miles. 


Feet. 


Gallons. 


45i 


12.98 


56 


752,967 


45i 


12.98 


56 


666,991 


45i 


12.98 


56 


502, 207 


45i 


12.98 


56 


408, 854 



16-foot, direct stroke 
14-foot, back geared. 
13-foot, back geared. 
12-foot, back geared. 



Acre-feet. 
2.31 
2.05 
1.54 
1.25 



Under "Climate" is given a table that contains data in regard to 
the average wind velocity of the region. It should be understood, 
however, that the efficiency of an average velocity is considerably 
different from that of a uniform velocity, because of the low efficiency 
both of very gentle and of very strong winds. 

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION. 

Large reservoirs are not feasible, and where the water is pumped 
at the cost of fuel they may not be desirable, because they involve 
loss both by evaporation and by seepage. Small reservoirs, on the 
other hand, are generally useful, especially for pumping plants of 
small capacity, because they diminish the labor necessary in apply- 
ing the water to crops and also lessen the loss of water in the distrib- 
uting ditches. Where windmills are used it is advantageous to have 
relatively large storage facilities. 

Reservoirs made by banking up earth are least expensive, and 
they can usually be rendered nearly water-tight if they are puddled 
by driving cattle or sheep about in them. Obviously it will not do 
to store costly water in a leaky reservoir, and possible loss through 
leakage must be carefully guarded against. 

The following information and advice in regard to the construc- 
tion of small earth reservoirs is given in a recent bulletin by P. E. 
Fuller: 1 

A means of storing water * * * should be resorted to in every instance where 
the flow is less than 600 gallons per minute. The reason for recommending a reservoir 
for flows up to this amount is that, with small streams used direct from the pumps, the 
loss in conveyance in ditches is excessive and the loss in the application of the water 
to the land is large, since a small stream will saturate a spot and a large amount of 
water will sink into the soil in this one place instead of spreading over a large area 
and moistening the surface. Further, much more labor is required to irrigate with 
a small stream than with a large one. * * * The reservoir should be of sufficient 
size to hold the water pumped between irrigations. 

The following table gives the dimensions of circular reservoirs of different capac- 
ities; the quantities of earth in the embankments, if these have inside slopes of 3 to 1 
and outside slopes of 1 to 1; the areas which can be irrigated, provided the reservoir 



i Fuller, P. E., The Use of Windmills in Irrigation in the Semiarid West: Farmers' Bull., U. S. Dept. 
Agr., No. 394, 1910, pp. 28 to 33. + 



IRRIGATION. 



61 



full of water is used once in ten days throughout five months and the land receives 
water to a depth of 1 foot; and the costs of the reservoirs : 

Sizes of circular reservoirs and estimated cost for various areas of land to be irrigated. 



Gross ca- 
pacity of 
reservoir. 


Depth 
of res- 
ervoir 


Diameter 
at bot- 
tom of 

embank- 
ment. 


Diameter 
at top of 
embank- 
ment. 


Bot- 
tom 
width 
of em- 
bank- 
ment. 


Top 

width 
of em- 
bank- 
ment. 


Amount 
of fill re- 
quired. 


Esti- 
mated 
cost of 
reser- 
voir. 


Area 
irri- 
gated. 

Acres. 


Acre-feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Cu. yds. 




0.07 


4 


21. 30 


45.30 


19 


3 


212. 00 


$21. 20 


1 


.16 


4 


34.96 


58.96 


19 


3 


281. 52 


28.15 


2 


.24 


4 


45.62 


69.62 


19 


3 


336. 25 


33.62 


3 


.32 


4 


54.61 


78.61 


19 


3 


381.88 


38.18 


4 


.40 


4 


62.27 


86.27 


19 


3 


422. 46 


42.24 


5 


.49 


5 


58.58 


88.58 


24 


4 


684. 71 


68.47 


6 


.56 


5 


63.64 


93.64 


24 


4 


725. 80 


72.58 


7 


.63 


5 


69.00 


99.00 


24 


4 


747. 75 


74.77 


8 


.72 


5 


74.37 


104. 37 


. 24 


4 


■ 813.51 


81.35 


9 


.80 


5 


79.36 


109.36 


24 


4 


854. 16 


85.41 


10 



If possible a site should be chosen where the natural surface of the ground which 
will become the bottom of the reservoir is above the land to be irrigated, and if the 
highest land to be irrigated is some distance from the reservoir the bottom should be 
enough higher than the land to give a slope of at least 6 feet to the mile from the reser- 
voir to the land. 

All sod and vegetation should be removed from the site, as the decay of the roots 
will leave passage for seepage. In a circle midway between the outside and inside 
bank line plow a trench 2 feet wide and 1 foot deep, removing this dirt to the outside 
of the bank; fill in this trench with clay, or with a clay and gravel mixture. After a 
part of the trench has been so filled add water, and thoroughly puddle so as to form 
a bond between the original walls of the trench and the material added; haul in addi- 
tional clay material to this section of the trench until it projects above the original 
ground surface at least a foot and is yet a soft mass; then proceed to build the banks, 
puddling and tamping the new fill so as to thoroughly bind with the core of clay mate- 
rial. Proceed with the embankment until the first course to a depth of 6 inches has 
been completed around the entire inclosure, then add a second course of the same 
thickness around the entire wall, allowing the teams to walk upon the top of the 
banks a distance, of at least 20 feet each time a scraper is dumped, for in this way 
each course is well tamped as the work progresses. It would be far better if each 
course could be thoroughly wet down so as to puddle it or better to tamp the embank- 
ment; and even better results would be obtained if the clay core could be carried 
up with the work to the top of the bank, though this is not an easy matter and is not 
imperative if the material used in constructing the banks is of a clayey nature. It 
is well to allow the banks to settle under several rains or snows before the reservoir 
is filled. 

The inside slope of the bank should be very gradual, so as to avoid erosion and cut- 
ting. The width of the top of the bank should be not less than 3 feet for a reservoir 
4 feet deep, and 4 feet for one 5 feet deep. The slope of the outside of the embank- 
ment may be steeper, 1 to 1 if planted to grass, so as to avoid washing or cutting from 
rains. 

Haul into the bottom a lining of clay or clay mixture several inches in excess of the 
depth of soil removed, and after distributing it evenly pump into the reservoir suffi- 
cient water to form a thick muck or paste and thoroughly puddle by keeping cattle 
or sheep in the reservoir for at least a week, and better for thirty days. Indeed, the 
entire success of the reservoir is dependent upon such puddling, and there can be no 
reason why, by placing a temporary fence around the inclosure, the cattle or sheep 



62 

(can not be fed and watered while so penned up for thirty days. It will of course be 
necessary to allow water to run into the reservoir in small quantities during the opera- 
tion of puddling, so as to maintain a soft puddle. After the work of puddling is com- 
pleted the banks may be trimmed to line by shovel. 

The inlet and outlet pipe should be put in place while the banks are being con- 
structed, for in this manner a water-tight joint between the pipe and banks can be 
secured. 

The loss from evaporation in the reservoir can be reduced effectually by the plant- 
ing of bush willows or some similar low-bush tree prof usely around the top of the banks, 
-thereby breaking the wind. The cutting of banks from wave motion can be elim- 
inated entirely in an earthen reservoir by floating a boom of old railroad ties or other 
timbers around the inner banks facing the direction of the prevailing wind, or, if 
desirable, around the entire reservoir. The ties should be held together at the ends 
by cleats securely nailed and the entire boom should be anchored in a line 3 feet from 
the banks. 

VALUE OF CROPS. 

Intensive cultivation of crops that yield large returns per acre 
would, of course, leave the largest margin after the cost of the water 
is deducted and would thus guarantee the surest success for irrigation 
by pumping, but present calculations must be based on such ordinary 
field crops as can be depended upon in respect both to yield and 
market value. It is not intended here to enter into a full discussion 
of the various crops that might be raised, but rather to state a few 
facts which will give some quantitative basis for comparing crop 
returns with cost of water. 

In regard to alfalfa, Samuel Fortier, chief of irrigation investiga- 
tions in the Department of Agriculture, states: 1 

Perhaps the most essential conditions for the production of alfalfa are abundant 
sunshine, a high summer temperature, sufficient moisture, and a rich, deep, well- 
drained soil. All of these essentials, save moisture, exist naturally in the arid region 
of the United States, and when water is supplied it makes the conditions ideal. * * * 
It is grown successfully in every State and Territory of the arid region, in localities 
which are not only widely separated but possess many radical differences in the way of 
rainfall, temperature, altitude, topography, and soil. 

Mr. Fortier cites an experiment in Montana in which with 1 foot 
of irrigation water 4.42 tons of cured alfalfa per acre were produced, 
and with 2 feet, 6.35 tons, and adds: 

The results of this experiment seem to confirm the best practice of southern Cali- 
fornia, which may be summed up by stating that in localities having an annual rain- 
fall of about 12 inches, remarkably heavy yields of alfalfa may be obtained from the 
use of 24 to 30 inches of irrigation water, providing it is properly applied. 

C. A. Fisher 2 states that in the vicinity of Roswell, N. Mex., if 30 
inches per year are properly applied, three or four crops of alfalfa 
may be cut, an average yield being 1 ton to the acre for each cutting. 
V. L. Sullivan, territorial engineer of New Mexico, estimates 3 that 

i Irrigation of Alfalfa: Farmers' Bulletin No. 373, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1909. 

2 Geology ;aM underground waters of the Hoswell Artesian Area, New Mexico: Water-Supply Paper 
No. 158, 0; & fQeol. Saarvey, 1906, p. 28. 

3 Irrigation in New Mexico: U. S. Dept. of A^r., Bull. No. 215, 1909, p. 17. 



IRRIGATION. 63 

"the yield of hay (alfalfa) in this part of the United States is 2 to 7 
tons an acre when grown under irrigation; an average of 5 tons is a 
conservative estimate, usually producing a net return of $10 per ton." 
Alfalfa seed is a valuable though rather uncertain crop, but it 
requires little water and could perhaps be raised to advantage after 
one crop of hay had been harvested. 

Good crops of wheat, oats, and other cereals could no doubt be 
raised by irrigation, but a given amount of water would probably 
accomplish more if applied to beans, potatoes, or forage plants such as 
cane, millet,. and kaffir corn. Beets and other vegetables are said to 
thrive well when moisture is applied, and some kinds of fruit could 
be raised. Melons have been grown with good results. 

BEST USE OF THE WATER. 

The most hopeful view of the future of irrigation in Estancia 
Valley can not alter the conclusion that this valley must remain 
largely a grazing or dry farming region. Grazing yields very small 
returns per acre; dry farming may, if the elements happen to be 
propitious, yield vastly more. But the elements are capricious, and 
the farmer who must depend upon them entirely will of necessity 
have a precarious lot. The available water will, of course, be utilized 
in various ways, but it would seem that in the main it will be put to its 
best use whenit is employed to supplement dry farming and stock raising. 

In the first place, every farmer should irrigate a few shade trees, a 
small orchard, a small grass lawn, and a garden containing vegetables, 
shrubs, and flowers. These things will contribute much to the com- 
fort of farm life, and, moreover, the garden will be of substantial 
value in supplying food for the household and in making it possible 
to tide over dry years. One of the very few examples of such irriga- 
tion at present found in the wide expanse of the valley is at the old 
Moriarty ranch. A small supply of water will prove sufficient; 
indeed, there are few localities in the valley where enough water can 
not be obtained or where it is so deep that the farmer can not afford 
to pump it for this purpose. For this kind of irrigation windmills 
will be useful, but'it will be well to supplement them by small gasoline 
engines, so that the supply will not fail at the time it is most needed. 

Where plentiful supplies of water are available within a compara- 
tively short distance of the surface, it is believed that it can be made 
profitable to install a larger plant and to irrigate a number of addi- 
tional acres, on which alfalfa or forage can be raised. These crops 
will have a high value if fed to the stock on the farm in the winter 
or in times of extreme drought, when otherwise the stock would 
suffer severely. A portion of the water may be used to raise for the 
market some more intensive crop, such as beans or potatoes, the 
proceeds of which will help to tide over years of failure in dry farming. 
86378°— wsp 275—11 5 



64 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

It may be that the ground water can be used to some extent 
to supplement dry farming directly. The damage to crops is due 
perhaps less to the absolute deficiency of rainfall than to its irregu- 
larity and uncertainty. Enough rain may fall throughout the 
growing season to produce a fair yield except in one period of drought. 
If during this period the ground could be given one good wetting the 
success of ths crop would be assured , but the wetting does not come 
and the farmer is helpless to prevent the failure of his crop. Irrigation 
water at this critical time would have a value out of all proportion to 
that of its ordinary crop-producing power. It is evident that a 
relatively small amount of water, considered for the entire year, 
would cover a large acreage; and the farmer who has gone through 
the hard experience of seeing his entire crop ruined will readily 
appreciate that if, by means of the artificial application of water, 
even a small portion of his crop can be saved, it will be infinitely 
better than failure. 

If the reader will turn to the records of precipitation given under 
" Climate" (p. 31) he can pick out for himself the months when 
artificial watering was necessary. Brief as the records are, they show 
that the crop-ruining months are sufficiently numerous to do heavy 
damage. They also show that while deficiency of rainfall is most 
common in the spring, when the crops ought to be started, it may 
strike any part of the growing season. 

There will, of course, be difficulties in developing a feasible method 
of combining irrigation and dry farming, but there appears to be no 
inherent reason why such" a combination method can not be evolved. 

The limits to the area in which the larger use of water is practicable 
and the limits to the amount of irrigation that is possible in. any given 
locality within this area must be determined gradually by experience. 
The situation tends strongly toward an economical use of the water, 
and economy will tend in two ways to enlarge the scope of irrigation. 
It will reduce to a minimum both the expense of pumping and the 
waste of the limited underground supply. The first concerns the 
immediate welfare of the individual; the second concerns the perma- 
nent welfare of the entire community. To a certain extent individual 
self-interest will here abet the public welfare, for the pumps will not 
be operated except when necessary. 

THE ALKALI PROBLEM. 

The answer to the question whether water of a certain quality can 
be successfully used for irrigation depends largely on a number of 
related conditions, among which may be mentioned the kind of crops 
to be raised, the amount of alkali already in the soil, the natural 
drainage of the land or the ease with which artificial drainage could 
be established, and the cost and abundance of the water itself. If 



IRRIGATION". 65 

all of these conditions are favorable, water containing large amounts 
of sodium sulphate and sodium chloride can be used with success, 
but if all or most of them are unfavorable the case is entirely different. 
During the summer of 1902, T. H. Means, of the Bureau of Soils, 
visited certain oases in Sahara Desert, in eastern Algeria, in which 
water carrying large quantities of soluble matter is used for irrigation 
with good results. Some of the vegetables successfully grown are 
those considered sensitive to alkali, and yet they were being irrigated 
with water containing, in some instances, as much as 8,000 parts per 
million of soluble salts, sometimes as much as one-half of these salts 
being sodium chloride. The methods used are described as follows: 1 

The Arab gardens are divided into small plats, about 20 feet square, between which 
run drainage ditches dug to a depth of about 3 feet. The soils being very light and 
sandy, this ditching at short intervals insures the most rapid and thorough drainage. 
Irrigation is by the check method, and application is made at least once a week, 
though often two wettings a week are deemed necessary. A large quantity of water 
is used at each irrigation. Thus a continuous movement of the water downward is 
maintained, there is little opportunity for the soil water to become more concentrated 
than the water as applied, and the intervals between irrigations being so short but 
little accumulation of salt from evaporation at the surface takes place. What concen- 
tration or accumulation does occur is quickly corrected by the succeeding irrigation. 

It is essential to note that the successful use of this water depends 
entirely upon good drainage conditions and the application of large 
amounts of water. In the same paper, Means says: 

The limit for concentration for irrigation water in the United States, even where only 
the most resistant crops are to be grown, has been placed by some authorities at 300 
parts sodium chloride (common salt) or sodium carbonate (black alkali) and at from 
1,700 to 3,000 parts of the less harmful salts, per million of water. 2 Those who place 
the low limit of safety for alkaline irrigation waters have taught that where water was 
badly alkaline irrigation should be sparing. They have not insisted on thorough 
drainage, and they have warned irrigators against too frequent irrigation. With such 
practices the limit of concentration which they set is probably high enough, and even 
then all except the most sandy soils or those with exceptionally good natural drainage 
would ultimately be damaged. 

In regard to the same subject, C. W. Dorsey says: 3 

W T hen the soil contains a relatively large amount of salt and but little water con- 
taining much salt is frequently applied, the ordinary evaporation will increase the salt 
content of the soil to such an extent that crops can no longer survive, whereas if ade- 
quate drainage is provided and a large amount of water is used the excess of salt 
resulting from the evaporation of previous applications of water may be removed and 
the soil moisture be maintained at nearly the same concentration as the water supply. 

The data given under "Soil" and "Quality of water" furnish a 
basis for a rather definite conclusion in regard to the feasibility of 
irrigating in the alkali area of Estancia Valley. The 'samples of soil 

1 Means, T. H., The use of alkaline and saline waters for irrigation : Bureau of Soils, Circular No. 10, U. S. 
Dept. Agr. 

2 In the original paper the quantities are expressed in parts per 100,000 of water. 

3 Reclamation of alkali soils: Bull. Bureau of Soils, No. 34, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1906, p. 11. 



66 

that were analyzed have a high alkali content, and the water in the 
same region is rich in dissolved chlorides and sulphates. Within the 
area of saline shallow water (that is, the area in which the shallow 
ground water has a chlorine content of more than 1,000 parts per 
million) nine samples of deeper water were tested, and the average 
chlorine content of these samples was found to be 595 parts per 
million. On the assumption that all the chlorine is in equilibrium 
with sodium, the average content of common salt would be 982 parts 
per million, or more than 2,500 pounds per acre-foot. By the time 
10 feet of water would have been applied to a field, 25,000 pounds of 
common salt would have been placed on each acre irrigated, a quan- 
tity equivalent to 0.625 of 1 per cent of the soil if concentrated in 
the first foot, or 0.156 of 1 per cent if distributed through the upper 
4 feet. 

If good drainage conditions could be established and water applied 
unsparingly, then, by the use of the deeper water, the alkali now in 
the soil and that introduced by the water could be disposed of by 
leaching it downward and draining it away. Unfortunately, the natu- 
ral drainage is poor and the expense of establishing artificial drainage 
Would be great. Unfortunately, too, the liberal use of water would 
be prevented by the limitations of the supply and the cost of pumping. 
In view of these facts it seems that the general conclusion can not be 
avoided that in the most alkaline portion of the central flat irriga- 
tion by pumping from wells is not feasible, and it becomes necessary 
to advise against expenditures for pumping plants within this area. 
A caution should also be given for a wider region having poor drain- 
age, water of intermediate chlorine content, or soil that shows alkali 
symptoms, lest in the course of time the sparing application of water 
pumped from wells will result in an injurious accumulation of alkali. 

SUMMARY. 

The conclusions in regard to irrigation with ground water can be 
briefly summarized as follows : 

In spite of the high cost of fuel, if the water is lifted in the most 
economical manner and is wisely used, pumping for irrigation can 
under favorable conditions be made profitable. The underground 
supply is not large enough to irrigate more than a small part of the 
total arable area, but it is sufficient to add greatly to the agricultural 
product of the valley. Even where the depth to water is great the 
irrigation of a garden, lawn, and orchard will generally be feasible. 
In the central area, however, the presence of alkali may seriously 
impair the quality of the water or may prohibit its use. Taken as a 
whole, the water of Estancia Valley is a valuable resource that should 
be developed, but its development should be conducted carefully and 
with full cognizance of the inherent limitations. 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OP ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 67 

TABLES. 

The following table shows the depths to water by townships: 

Table of depths to water in Estancia Valley. 



No. 


Quarter 

of 
section. 


Sec- 
tion. 


Town- 
ship 
north. 


Range 
east. 


Situation of well. 


Depth to 

water. 






9 
15 

22 

27 

31 

11 

15 

23 

1 

5 

8 

8 

11 

34 

14 

16 

23 

24 

24 

26 

3 

6 

7 

8 

8 

9 

11 

31 

3 

9 

3 

25 

25 

5 

13 

17 

21 

24 

25 

28 

28 

28 

30 

31 

33 

33 

1 

2 

5 

6 

8 

8 

9 

9 

10 
11 
13 
13 
14 
15 
15 
18 
21 
24 
25 
31 
33 
35 
5 
18 
19 


2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

£ 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 


11 
11 
12 
12 
12 
9 

10 
10 
6 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
10 
10 
6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 




Feet. 
a 130 


?, 






a 45 


8 






a 215 


4 


SW. 

NW. 
NE. 
SW. 
NW. 
NE. 
NW. 
NW. 
SW. 
NE. 
SW. 
SW. 


In Cedarvale 


a 174 


5 




a 206 


6 




a 80 


7 


Progresso station 


35 


8 




25 


9 




a 45 


10 


In the arroyo 


16 


11 




a 50 


12 




a 55 


13 




110 


14 




165 


15 




90 


16 




68 


17 


NE. 
NE. 
SE. 
NE. 
SW. 
SE. 
NE. 
NW. 
NE. 
NE. 
NW. 
NW. 
SW. 
NE. 




93 


18 




63 


19 




66 


90 




105 


21 




21 


9,9 




40 


23 




42 


24 




35 


25 


Northwest corner 


35 


26 


do 


25 


?7 




8 


9,H 




a 85 


29 




30 


30 




43 


31 




a 80 


3? 


NE. 
SE. 




98 


33 




46 


34 




a 158 


35 


NE. 
SE. 

NW. 
NW. 




51 


36 




a 93 


37 




a 80 


38 




47 


39 




13 


40 


SW. 
SW. 
SW. 




a 26 


41 




28 


42 




38 


43 




42 


44 


SW. 
NW. 
SW. 
NE. 
NE. 
SW. 
SW. 
SE. 
SW. 




40 


45 




a 28 


46 
47 


In the arroyo 


a 80 
22 


48 




4 


49 




47 


r»o 




82 


51 




50 


ra 




47 


.53 




a 36 


54 


SE. 
NE. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
SW. 
SE. 
SW. 
NW. 
SE. 
NE. 
SE. 
SE. 
SW. 
NE. 
NW. 
NE. 
NW. 


On the hill 


50 


55 




5 


56 




aS 


57 




32 


58 




21 


59 




14 


60 




15 


61 




18 


62 




35 


63 




23 


.64 




30 


65 




30 


66 




76 


67 




allO 


68 




31 


69 




20 


70 




24 


71 




26 



a Depth not measured, but given on the authority of owner, driller, or other responsible person. 



68 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

Table of depths to water in Estancia Valley — Continued. 



No. 


Quarter 

of 
section. 


Sec- 
tion. 


Town- 
ship 
north. 


Range 
east. 


Situation of well. 


Depth to 
water. . 


7? 


SE. 

NE. 
SE. 
SW. 
SE. 


10 

13 

13 

4 

6 

8 

8 

1 

5 

14 

14 

17 

23 

34 

35 

36 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

9 

9 

10 

10 

11 

12 

12 

18 

19 

19 

20 

20 

21 

21 

22 

23 

28 

2G 

31 

33 

34 

35 

35 

1 

3 

5 

5 

6 

7 

10 

11 

11 

12 

15 

15 

17 

18 

19 

20 

29 

29 

26 

4 

31 

15 

36 

1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

7 

10 
12 
13 
14 


5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 


10 
10 
10 
11 
11 
11 
11 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
■7 
7 
7 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
■ 8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
10 
10 
11 
7 
7 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 




Feet. 
20 


73 




a 66 


74 




a 95 


75 




56 


76 




39 


77 




40 


78 






40 


79 


SE. 




140 


80 




allO 


81 


NE. 
SE. 




170 


8? 




a 165 


83 


East margin, in the arroyo 


90 


84 


SE. 
SW. 
SW. 
SW. 
NW. 
NE. 
SW. 
SW. 
NW. 
SW. 
NE. 
SE. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
NE. 
SW. 
NW. 
SE. 
SW. 
NE. 
SE. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
SE. 
NE. 
NE. 
NE. 
SW, 
SE. 
NE. 
NW. 
SW. 
SE. 
SW. 
SWo 


In the arroyo 


75 


85 


do 


a 100 


m 


do 


a 90 


87 




102 


88 




a 26 


89 




a 18 


90 




a8 


91 




16 


9? 




70 


93 




16 


94 




65 


95 




55 


96 




45 


97 




40 


98 




13 


99 




18 


100 




12 


101 




110 


102 




cllO 


103 


Level upland 


115 


104 




a 85 


105 




70 


106 




a 85 


107 




a 50 


108 




28 


109 




14 


110 




33 


111 




6 


112 


In the arroyo 


35 


113 




7 


114 




6 


115 




10 


116 




a6 


117 




a 10 


118 




og 


119 


Northwest corner 


13 


120 




14 


121 




18 


-\m, 






12 


ra 


SW. 
NW. 
SE. 
NE. 
SE. 
SW. 
SW. 
SW. 
NW. 
SW. 
NW. 
SW. 




al 


124 




12 


T>5 




o5 


126 




20 


127 






128 




a5 


129 




15 


130 




12 


131 




ag 


132 




17 


133 




18 


134 




18 


135 




36 


136 




do 


47 


137 


SE. 




a 50 


138 


East margin, in the arroyo 


138 


139 


SE. 
NW. 

SE. 
NW. 
NW. 
NW. 
SW. 




135 


140 




30 


141 




15 


142 




48 


143 




a 75 


144 




a 94 


145 
146 




a 45 
14 


147 


SW. 
SW. 
SW. 




33 


148 




35 


149 




16 



a Depth not measured, but given on the authority of owner, driller, or other responsible person. 



TABLES. 

Table of depths to water in Estancia Valley — Continued. 



69 



No. 


Quarter 
of 

section. 


Sec- 
tion. 


Town- 
ship 
north. 


Range 

east. 


Situation of well. 


Depth to 
water. 


150 


NE. 
SW. 
SE. 
NW. 
SW. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
SE. 
SW. 
SW. 
SE. 
SE. 
SE. 
NW. 
SW. 
NW. 
SE. 
NW. 
SW. 
NE. 
SW. 


15 

19 

21 

26 

36 

4 

4 

9 

9 

15 

16 

19 

20 

21 

22 

27 

28 

30 

34 

35 

8 

8 

9 

15 

16 

22 

31 

36 

1 

11 

12 

14 

22 

23 

23 

24 

27 

33 

8 

17 

28 

28 

32 

33 

7 

10 

14 

17 

22 

23 

24 

' 27 

28 

29 

31 

31 

32 

32 

33 

33 

35 

36 

1 

4 

9 

9 

11 

11 

12 

15 

17 

19 

20 

29 

30 

5 

1 

2 


7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
10 
10 


8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
11 
7 
8 
S 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
10 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
10 
8 
8 




Feet. 

57 


151 


Upland 


94 


15? 




44 


153 




14 


IV 




12 


155 




a 25 


1*>fi 




a 16 


157 




a 18 


158 




a 14 


159 




a 16 


160 




a 10 


161 




10 


16? 


South margin , 


10 


163 


do 


a 12 


164 




a 16 


165 




a 8 


166 




10 


167 




10 


168 




a 12 


169 




a 12 


170 




a 56 


171 




a 50 


17? 


South margin 


a 70 


173 


SW. 
NE. 




66 


174 




70 


175 




a 70 


176 






a 45 


177 


SE. 

NW. 
SE. 
NW. 
NE. 
SE. 
NE. 
NE. 
SW. 
SE. 
NE. 
NW. 
NE. 
NW. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
NE. 
NE. 
'NW. 
NE. 
NE. 
NE. 
NE. 
SE. 
NE. 
NE. 
NE. 
NW. 
NW. 
NE. 
NW. 
NE. 
NE. 
SE. 
NW. 
SE. 
NE. 
SE. 




a 85 


178 


In the arroyo 


16 


179 




38 


180 




38 


181 




28 


189 




68 


183 


Southeast corner 


a 18 


184 


Near base of cliff 


a9 


185 




19 


186 




54 


187 




70 


188 


Northeast corner 


25 


189 




24 


190 




22 


191 


Southwest corner 


20 


19? 




a 25 


193 




20 


194 




184 


195 




57 


196 


Level upland 


59 


197 


In the arroyo 


34 


198 


do 


a 21 


199 




45 


200 




36 


201 




55 


?m 




a 83 


?m 




a 138 


204 




a 58 


205 




a 98 


?m 




a 78 


?m 




a 114 


?m 




a 100 


209 




a 130 


210 




27 


211 


In the arroyo 


30 


21? 




63 


213 




26 


214 




34 


215 




24 


216 




a 25 


217 


NW. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
NW. 
NE. 
SW. 
SE. 
SW. 
NE. 
NW. 




a 22 


218 




a 43 


219 




27 


220 




24 


221 




26 


222 




15 


223 




16 


224 




18 


225 




129 


226 




88 


227 




135 



a Depth not measured, but given on the authority of owner, driller, or other responsible person. 



70 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTASTCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



Table of depths to water in Estancia Valley — Continued. 



No. 



228 
229 
230 
231 
232 
233 
234 
235 
236 
237 
238 
239 
240 
241 
242 
243 
244 
245 
246 
247 
248 
249 
250 
251 
252 
253 
254 
255 
256 
257 
258 
259 
260 
261 
262 
263 
264 
265 
266 
267 
268 
269 
270 
271 
272 
273 
274 
275 
276 
277 
278 
279 
280 
281 



Quarter 

of 
section. 



SW. 

sw. 

s. 

SE. 
NW. 
NW. 
SE. 
NE. 
SE. 
NE. 
NW. 
NW. 
NW. 
SW. 
NE. 
NW. 
SE. 
NE. 
SW. 
NE. 
SW. 
NW. 
SE. 
SE. 
NE. 
NW. 
SW. 



SE. 

SE. 
SW. 



NE. 
SW. 
SW. 
NW. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
SE. 
NE. 
SW. 



SW. 
SE. 

SE. 

NE. 



SE. 
NW. 
SE. 



NE. 
SE. 



Sec- 
tion. 


Town- 
ship 
north. 


Range 

east. 


2 


10 


8 


4 


10 


8 


8 


10 


8 


9 


10 


8 


11 


10 


8 


14 


10 


8 


14 


10 


8 


15 


10 


8 


15 


10 


8 


17 


10 


8 


i 21 


10 


8 


21 


10 


8 


22 


10 


8 


22 


10 


8 


23 


10 


8 


24 


10 


8 


27 


10 


8 


* 34 


10 


8 


34 


10 


8 


35 


10 


8 


1 


10 


9 


3 


10 


9 


4 


10 


9 


4 


10 


9 


5 


10 


9 


5 


10 


9 


5 


10 


9 


6 


10 


9 


6 


10 


9 


9 


10 


9 


17 


10 


9 


18 


10 


9 


19 


10 


9 


26 


10 


9 


27 


10 


9 


29 


10 


9 


34 


10 


9 


34 


10 


9 


35 


10 


9 


35 


10 


9 


5 


10 


10 


1 


11 


8 


22 


11 


8 


24 


11 


8 


28 


11 


8 


8 


11 


9 


18 


11 


9 


19 
20 


11 
11 


9 
9 


28 


11 


9 


28 


11 


9 


31 


11 


9 


28 


11 


.9 


30 


11 


10 


32 


11 


10 



Situation of well. 



In the arroyo. 



Upland. 



Southwest corner. 

In the arroyo 

Upland 



In the arroyo... 
Upland 



Northeast corner . 



Northwest corner; in arroyo. 
North margin 



Northeast corner 

Southeast corner 

East margin 



Northwest corner. 



In the arroyo. 



Northwest corner. 
Northeast corner. 



In the arroyo. 
South margin. 



Upland. 



Southeast corner, depth of well 139 feet 

South margin 

In the arroyo 



In Stanley 

North margin; slightly above the arroyo. 



Near center of section . 



Depth to 
water. 



Feet, 

a 148 

159 

a 174 

allO 

a 135 

a 115 

a 80 

a 85 

a 97 

a 165 

a 141 

127 

a 100 

a 112 



55 

74 

a 165 

a 44 

a 105 

99 

a 66 

a 82 

78 

75 

a 60 

72 

62 

75 

a42 

51 

42 

35 

27 

45 

a 20 

a 15 

a 15 

25 

a 165 

a 200 

a 135 

allO 

a 184 

144 



a 90 

allO 

147 

152 

82 

a 107 

a 213 

a 175 



a Depth not measured, but given on the authority of owner, driller, or other responsible person. 



TABLES. 



71 



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72 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OE ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



PI a 

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TABLES. 



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i>t*t>.t^i>oooooooooo 



74 



GEOLOGY AND WATERS OP ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 



Tests made by the Atchison, Topelea & Santa Fe Railway Co. of water from its wells in 

Estancia Valley, N. Mex. 

[Reported by the railway company in grains per United States gallon but recalculated, for convenience in 

comparison, to parts per million.] 



No. 


Location. 


Depth of 
well. 


Depth to 
water. 


Depth 
from 

which 

water 
was 

taken. 


Incrust- 
ants, in- 
cluding 
silica and 
iron, and 
carbonates, 
sulphates, 
and chlo- 
rides of 
calcium 
and mag- 
nesium. 


Foaming 
material 
(including 

organic 
matter and 
carbonates, 
sulphates, 
and chlo- 
rides of 
sodium and 
potassium) . 


Total 
solids. 


1 




Feet. 
330 
330 
330 
330 
440 
440 
440 
440 
440 
440 
440 
440 
440 
440 
440 
440 
350 
350 
350 


Feet. 

210 

210 

210 

210 

35 

35 

35 

** 35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

40 

40 

40 


Feet. 
283 
295 


1,038 
516 
246 
210 
340 
337 
404 
395 
325 
320 
369 
364 
304 
340 
556 
400 
2,724 
2,348 
2,139 


171 
85 


1,209 


?, 


do 


601 


3 


.do. 


410 


4 


.do. 


300 
41 
41 
52 
52 
130 
146 
223 
233 


50 
111 
299 
123 
128 

92 
108 
116 
135 


260 


5 


Willard 

..do 


451 
636 


7 
8 


do 

..do 


527 
523 


q 


. ...do 


417 


10 


...do 


428 


11 


....do 


485 


1? 


....do, 


499 


18 


....do 


412 


14 


...do 




92 
121 
207 
429 
198 
216 


432 


IS 


...do 




677 


16 


..do, 




607 


17 




120 
315 
350 


3,153 


IS 


.do 


2,546 


19 


do 


2,355 









NOTE ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES. 

Estancia Valley has occasionally been called "Sandoval Basin" or 
" Sandoval Bolson" after the large Antonio Sandoval land grant 
which it once contained, but the name " Estancia Valley" is now in 
general use. 

For generations the Mexican inhabitants have had definite names 
for the principal mountains, buttes, arroyos, salt basins, and other 
topographic features, but the American settlers who have recently 
come into the valley show a tendency to ignore these Spanish names. 
Frequently the English translation of the Spanish name is used, but 
in some cases entirely new names are applied or no name at all is 
known. In this paper the Spanish names are consistently retained 
because they have the sanction of long usage and are more distinctive 
and euphonious than the English names of recent origin. Below are 
given some translations and alternative names : 

Arroyo Fecundo Fertile Draw. 

Arroyo del Cibolo. . . Buffalo Draw. 

Arroyo del Sinsonte . Mocking Bird Draw. 

Arroyo Mesteno Ranchers' Draw. 

Canada Colorado Red Canyon. 

Laguna del Perro. . . Dog Lake. 

Laguna Salina Salt Lake. 

Arroyo Mesteno is well known as Manzano Draw, and Arroyo de Ortiz as Moriarty 
Draw. 



Laguna Chica Little Lake. 

PuntadeAgua Point of water. 

Manzano (range) Apple-tree (range). 

El Cuervo (butte) . . . Crow (butte). 
Cerrito del Lobo. . . . Wolf Hill. 
Pedernal (mountain) Flint (mountain). 



GROUND-WATER CONDITIONS IN PARTS OF CENTRAL 
NEW MEXICO. 



A RECONNAISSANCE IN ENCINO BASIN, NEW MEXICO. 

LOCATION AND AREA. 

Encino Basin lies in the central part of New Mexico, immediately 
east of Estancia Basin (fig. 1). Like the latter, it forms a closed 
depression whose drainage channels "lead to a low central flat, but it 
is much smaller than Estancia Basin, its area being not much more 
than one-tenth as great. It is bordered on the north by the drainage 
basin of Canada Pintada, which leads to Pecos River, on the east by 
a gently undulating upland that is drained eastward, and on the 
south by a closed depression known as Pinos Wells Basin and by 
a very small closed basin that intervenes between Encino and Pinos 
Wells basins. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 

UPLAND AREAS. 

The borders of Encino Basin are in general much lower than those 
of Estancia Basin, and at no place do they assume the character of 
mountain ranges. Most of its area consists of gently undulating, 
grass-covered upland that lies west and northwest of the low flat 
and is traversed by arroyos that drain the storm waters toward this 
flat, the divides which separate the upland from Estancia Basin and 
Canada Pintada being inconspicuous. The divides on the south and 
east are relatively near the flat and are still lower and less conspicu- 
ous. On the northeast the basin is bordered by a low mesa that sup- 
ports some trees. 

The western upland is underlain largely by granite with associated 
schist and quartzite, but a series of stratified formations, probably 
continuous with some of the Carboniferous formations found in 
Estancia Basin, also appears. In the railway excavation west of 
Negra, there is an exposure of gray, chocolate, and greenish 
shales and an overlying pink conglomerate, derived chiefly from 
granite. The conglomerate rests upon the shale with pronounced 
unconformity. It outcrops at other points and has been encoun- 
tered in some of the wells near Negra. Limestone is exposed a 
short distance east of this station, and sandstone and other rocks 

75 



76 GROUND WATERS IN CENTRAL NEW MEXICO. 

appear in the divide on the east side of the basin. West and south 
of the fiat south of Encino there is a conspicuous cliff, several miles 
in total length, in which red beds containing thick layers of gypsum 
come to the surface. In general the stratified beds are horizontal 
or have only gentle dips, but at some points displacements and 
abrupt changes in dip are found. Beds underlain by gypsum are 
likely to be more or less disturbed by caving that results from the 
removal of the gypsum through its solution in percolating waters. 

ANCIENT LAKE BED. 

Although this basin is so. much smaller than Estancia Basin and 
has no mountain ranges to supply water, there is indisputable evi- 
dence that its lowest part was at one time occupied by a lake (Pis. 
XII and XIII). As in Estancia Basin, this evidence is furnished by 
the delicately laminated sedimentary beds, such as are deposited 
only at the bottom of a body of standing water, by a flat plain char- 
acteristic of the bed of a desiccated lake, and by terraces, beaches, 
and other markings, whose occurrence at certain levels indicate 
ancient strands or shore lines. 

LAKE SEDIMENTS. 

In the village of Encino exposures afforded by cellars and dug 
wells show irregular beds of sand, gravel, and clay, but no beds that 
resemble the laminated lake sediments in Estancia Valley. The same 
is true of wells and cellars east and southeast of the village, in the 
vicinity of the railroad; but less than a mile south and a short dis- 
tance east of Encino, on slightly lower ground, a dug well was found 
in which about 4 feet of typically laminated lake beds occur. They 
rest on nonlaminated yellow sand and gravel and are overlain by 
about 2\ feet of dark soil with some pebbles at the surface. 

About a mile farther south there is a salt basin similar to those in 
Estancia Valley (PI. XIV, A). At the north margin of this basin 
lake sediments are only imperfectly developed, while beds of gypsum 
and other old formations make up the floor and the lowest parts of 
the sides of the basin. The floor is strewn with pebbles, which have 
evidently been washed thus far by water but which could not be 
removed by the wind when it excavated the basin. 

In the southeastern part of the basin the conditions are entirely 
different. Here more than 20 feet of typical lake sediments outcrop 
(PI XIV, B). They contain some sand and gypsum but consist 
chiefly of laminae of clay. The perfect stratification and fineness of 
the material is remarkable when the small size of the ancient lake is 
considered. Near the bottom there are calcareous beds, the heaviest 
of which has a thickness of more than half an inch. At a few places 
a nonlaminated formation appears below the lake sediments, thus 



U S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER SUPPLY PAPER 275 PLATE XII 




Horizontal scale 




SEC TION ALONG LINE A-A' 



LEGEND 



Recently deposited, clay with 
precipitates of salts left dv- 
evaporating waters 



Po st-lacustrine wind, dep o sits , 
consisting of clay with miixor 
amounts of sand and. gyp sum. 



Beach material, alluvium^etc., 
foundmthe littoral zone of the 
ancient lake "bed 



Finely stratified lake sediments, 
consisting of clay with minor 
amounts of sand, and gypsum 



Pre -lacustrine ■wind deposits, 
consisting of clay with minor 
amounts of sand and. gypsum 
(In part reworked "by the wind in 
recent times and mantled -with 
post-lacustrine wind deposits) 



Gypsum andredl>eds,probably 
PennsyLvanian 



Outline of salt "basin 



Outline of ancient lake "bed 



Principal strand of ancient. 



Conjectured higliest strand 
of ancient lake 



Cd.ll horxndccrie-s ore- apprxiayimcvte-J 



RECONNAISSANCE GEOLOGIC MAP OF THE ANCIENT LAKE BED 
IN THE ENCINO BASIN, NEW MEXICO 



A. TERRACE ON EAST SIDE OF ANCIENT LAKE BED NEAR ENCINO. 
See page 77. 




B. TERRACE ON SOUTH SIDE OF ANCIENT LAKE BED NEAR ENCINO. 
See page 77. 




C GAP IN ANCIENT BEACH BAR NEAR ALLEN McGILLIVRAY RANCH. 
See page 20. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 275 PLATE XIV 




A. ENCINO SALT BASIN. 
See page 78. 




B. STRATIFIED LAKE SEDIMENTS IN ENCINO SALT BASIN. 
See pasre 76. 



RECONNAISSANCE IN ENCINO BASIN, N. MEX. 77 

showing that the entire lake series is exposed. No pebbles are found 
on the floor of this part of the salt basin. 

The exact extent of the lake sediments is not known, but they 
appear to be present in the materials thrown up from wells sunk at 
different points on the flat south of the basin. They probably ex- 
tend beneath the low flat part of the ancient lake bed and are absent 
where the surface rises perceptibly. Their presence at the surface is 
probably indicated by the abundance of the large brush, Atriplex 
canescens ( ?) . 

SHORE FEATURES. 

As nearly as was ascertained, the area of the ancient lake was 
about 18 square miles, or only one- twenty-fifth of the area of Lake 
Estancia. Since the size of shore features depends largely upon the 
size of the waves, and the latter depends largely upon the size of the 
lake and consequent sweep of the wind, it might be expected that 
the shore line of Lake Encino would be very feebly marked. It is 
therefore rather surprising to find that some of the features rival in 
size those in Estancia Valley but that they are generally less distinct 
and less well preserved. 

The principal shore features in this basin consist of cliffs and 
attendant cut and built terraces. These are. found on the steep 
west, south, and east sides, where conditions were favorable for this 
kind of wave work. 

On the west and south sides the cliffs and terraces are for the 
most part cut into the soft red beds, which yield readily to wave 
work, and into somewhat harder layers of gypsum (PI. XIII, B). 
Since the caving produced by the gypsum causes small gentle syn- 
clines and anticlines, the lake terrace is repeatedly interrupted and 
is therefore rather disappointing in its general appearance; but the 
fact that it retains its horizontality and intersects the dipping strata 
greatly strengthens the evidence that it is a true ancient strand. 

On the east side the shore line was for the most part imposed upon 
wind-deposited clay (PL XIII, A). The character of this material 
is such that it must have yielded very freely to wave work, and 
hence it is not surprising that the lake terraces should here be large. 
The character of the material also affords the explanation for their 
poor preservation. While on the Estancia lake bed running water 
has accomplished but little destructive work, post-lacustrine wind 
erosion has been notably effective, and the shore features are well 
preserved because they are generally gravelly and hence not susceptible 
to wind erosion. Examination shows that the partial destruction 
of the lake terrace on the east side of Lake Encino is mainly the work 
of the wind and to only a small extent of the streams. When one 
observes the great amount of wind work that has been accomplished 
since the drying up of the lake in the excavation of the salt basin 



78 GROUND WATERS IN CENTRAL NEW MEXICO. 

and takes note of the present erosive activity of the wind, the poor 
state of preservation of the terraces is no longer puzzling. 

While the lake in Encino Basin was very much less extensive than 
that in Estancia Basin, it did not compare so unfavorably in depth. 
The shore line referred to in the foregoing description is the only dis- 
tinct and certain one. As nearly as could be estimated it stands about 
60 feet above the lowest part of the lake flat. No shore features 
were observed at lower levels, but there is some evidence (which need 
not be discussed here) that the water stood temporarily at a higher 
level. If this is true, the lake history of this basin would appear to 
be correlated with that in Estancia Basin, inasmuch as a temporary 
high-water stage is postulated for both lakes. 

SALT BASIN AND POST-LACUSTRINE WIND DEPOSITS. 

The lake flat contains a single large salt basin, which is of the same 
type as the salt basins on the flat of Lake Estancia (PL XIV, A). 
Like them, it was obviously excavated by the wind to the ground- 
water level and has a flat bottom and precipitous walls. As in 
Estancia Valley, the effect of prevailing westerly winds is obvious, the 
west margin being entirely destitute of wind deposits while the east 
margin is bordered by ridges and hills, the highest of which reach an 
altitude of fully 100 feet above the floor of the basin. As in Estancia 
Valley, the wind deposits form a sharp contrast with the lake sedi- 
ments, upon which, in some places, they rest with pronounced uncon- 
formity. Again, as in Estancia Valley, the clay deposits hug the 
basin closely, producing a topographic feature that bears a super- 
ficial resemblance to a volcano with a large crater. If the material 
excavated were more granular, like sand, it would be carried farther 
and would not remain in such close proximity to the salt basin. The 
sand and gypsum sand present are found chiefly at the tops of the 
ridges or in the thin blanket of eolian material that is spread over the 
lake bed to the leeward of the clay hills. The wind is constantly 
attacking the structures which it has itself thrown up. It gouges out 
precipitous trenches on the windward side of the clay hills and deposits 
the material thus acquired in elongated mounds to the leeward (PL 
XII). 

In the northern part of the valley the clay hills have a subdued 
aspect and are covered with grass, indicating that wind work has not 
been active in recent times, but in the southern section the hills are 
higher, more fantastically carved, and largely destitute of vegetation 
on the windward side, showing in every way that the wind is still 
actively at work. In some places the wind has eroded thin layers of 
limestone and other indurated deposits. 

At the time the basin was visited most of its floor was miry, but 
only a small part was covered with water. The position of the sub- 



RECONNAISSANCE IN ENCINO BASIN, N. MEX. 79 

merged part is significant. The work of the wind is to a small extent 
undone by the occasional rains which wash some of the excavated 
material back upon the floor of the basin, producing miniature alluvial 
slopes. Since the wash is greatest from the highest clay hills, the 
lowest depression, where the water stands longest after a rain, is 
located on the west side of the basin as remote as possible from these 
hills, just as on a larger scale in Sevier Desert, Utah, the lowest depres- 
sion, occupied by Sevier Lake, is remote from the lofty mountains 
that yield the most alluvium. 

PRELACUSTRINE WIND DEPOSITS. 

The deposit found beneath the lake sediments in the southeastern 
part of the salt basin consists of a light slate-colored, granular, gyp- 
siferous material in which no stratification was noticeable. At no 
place was an outcrop more than a few feet thick observed, and the 
exposures were so poor that its character could not be positively 
ascertained. Yet its appearance indicates that it is probably a pre- 
lacustrine wind deposit in which the yellowish tint was changed to 
bluish by the deoxidation of the iron present. In the wells that have 
been sunk on the flat south of the salt basin, the same bluish, granular, 
gypsif erous material is invariably brought to the surface after the 
lake sediments have been passed through. 

On the east side the depression occupied by the ancient lake bed is 
bordered by pale yellowish gray clay whose character, as a typical 
wind deposit, is well shown in the railway cut, where a thickness of 
more than 20 feet is freshly exposed. The topography is also typical 
of wind work. On the windward side the deposit has been thrown 
up to form an almost precipitous escarpment, but on the leeward side 
it slopes gradually, as shown in the section, Plate XII, and eventually 
disappears altogether. Its general prelacustrine age is fixed by the 
lake terrace built upon it. 

As has been explained, the depression occupied by the ancient lake 
is bordered on the west, south, and east by abrupt, cliff-like walls. 
This depression with its precipitous walls was not formed by the lake 
itself. It was in existence before the advent of the lake and afforded 
a basin in which the surplus waters collected and were held within 
definite and constricted limits, without which perhaps no permanent 
lake would have been produced. The effect of the lake was merely 
to fill the lowest parts of the depression sufficiently to produce a cen- 
tral flat and to cut a notch at a certain level into the precipitous walls. 
The general relations suggest that the depression itself may be, at 
least in part, the product of prelacustrine wind work. 
86378°— wsp 275—11 6 



80 GROUND WATERS IN CENTRAL NEW MEXICO. 

THE MAP. 

The map of the ancient lake bed in the Encino Basin (PI. XII) is 
introduced to illustrate the features described. It was sketched 
without an adequate base and the boundaries are merely approxi- 
mate. 

SOIL. 

An investigation of the soil would probably develop the fact that 
Encino Basin is divisible into four soil provinces — the uplands, 
where the soil is no doubt generally fertile; the littoral zone of the 
ancient lake, bed (b in PL (II), where the soil is probably also good 
but is likely to contain more soluble salts; the lake flat (I in PI. XII), 
where there is likely to be an objectionable amount of alkali and where 
the predominant vegetation consists of brush; and the areas covered 
by wind deposits (w, and perhaps also e, in PL XII), where the soil is 
probably rich in gypsum but less heavily impregnated with alkali 
than the soil of the lake flat, and where grass instead of brush is the 
predominant vegetation. 

The following analysis indicates a soil that is not seriously impreg- 
nated with alkali, nearly all of its soluble matter being gypsum. 

Analysis of soil at Encino, N. Mex. 

Per cent of 

Total soluble solids : total soil. 

First foot 0. 11 

Second foot 1. 15 

Third foot 1. 15 

Composite of upper 3 feet : 

Total soluble solids (calculated) 80 

Calcium (Ca) 21 

Magnesium (Mg) . 004 

Sulphate (S0 4 ) 48 

Carbonate (C0 3 ) None. 

Bicarbonate (HC0 3 ) 024 

Chlorine (CI) 002 

The samples were taken near the residence of David Liles, north 
of the depot. The analyses were made in September, 1910, by F. M. 
Eaton, Oakland, Cal. The percentages are based on the air-dried 
soil. 

GROUND WATER. 
OCCURRENCE AND HEAD. 

Wells are found in the ancient lake bed and at numerous points on 
the uplands. At Encino the water table stands 20 to 25 feet below 
the surface, and it is said to be at about this depth through the low 
flat area that extends southward from the village. It no doubt 
coincides approximately with the floor of the salt basin. On the 



N. MEX. 81 

uplands the depth to water is, of course, greater, and most of the 
wells are located in arroyos. 

At Negra, which is located in an arroyo west of Encino, the Atchi- 
son, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. has sunk several wells and 
is at present drilling two others. The principal railroad well now 
in use is 500 feet deep. It has an 8-inch casing extending to a depth 
of 350 feet and 6-inch casing from 350 feet to the bottom. The well 
is said to extend through various rock formations. Strainers are 
inserted at six horizons and difficulty is experienced in keeping out 
the fine sand. The other well at present in use is 171 feet deep. The 
normal water level in the wells* is»said to be about 70 feet below the 
surface and the pump in the 500-foot well 280 feet below the surface. 
As a rule both wells are pumped continuously and furnish about 3,400 
gallons per hour, about 14 gallons per minute being drawn from the 
171-foot well and 42 gallons per minute from the 500-foot well. At 
the time the station was visited this was the maximum yield of the 
wells, but it was believed that by cleaning out the sand that had 
accumulated the supply could be materially increased. 

The well of D. J. Bigbee is located in the NW. i sec. 23, T. 7 N., 
R. 13 E., about 15 miles northwest of Encirio. It is in the arroyo of 
Canada Pintada, a short distance north of the divide. This well was 
drilled 230 feet deep, and the water, which was encountered at 226 
feet, rose to a level about 185 feet below the surface. It is reported 
that 5,000 gallons have been pumped from it in 10 hours without 
noticeable effect. A similar well is located about 1 mile farther 
south, and several other wells with windmills were observed in the 
arroyo that leads toward the village of Encino. 

The vicinity of Encino is underlain by sand and gravel that will 
probably yield its water freely. Less certainty exists as to the water- 
bearing capacity of the underlying deposits farther south, on the lake 
flat. No gravel or quartz sand was observed in the materials brought 
out of the wells on the flat south of the salt basin, and in some locali- 
ties the gypsum and red-beds series is near the surface. 

QUALITY. 

The water from the upland wells is generally reported to be of 
good quality. The railroad supply at Negra is said to be preferred 
to the water at Willard for use in boilers. At Encino the water is 
so highly mineralized that it is avoided for drinking and household 
use. On the flat farther south it is reported still worse. Numerous 
dug wells were found on the flat south of the salt basin, but none 
seemed to be in use. It is likely that the conditions in this basin 
are analogous to those found in Estancia Basin. 

Below is given an assay of the water from the well of H. B. Mark- 
ham, in the village of Encino. This is a dug well about 25 feet 



82 GROUND WATERS IN CENTRAL NEW MEXICO. 

deep. It penetrates irregularly deposited bodies of clay and gravei 
and ends in a bed of sand. The water level is 22 feet below the sur- 
face. The assay indicates that the water is similar to the gypsifer- 
ous water in the Estancia Valley. 

Assay of well water at Encino, N. Mex. 
[Parts per million.] 

• Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 109 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) a 2, 300 

Chlorine (CI). 126 

IRRIGATION. 

The rainfall is not sufficient to assure crops by dry-farming meth- 
ods, and there are no permanent streams. A remote possibility 
exists that flowing wells could be obtained, but the indications are 
less promising than in Estancia Valley, where drilling has developed 
unfavorable results. There is, however, reason to believe that some 
land can be successfully irrigated by pumping from wells. In parts 
of the shallow-water belt detrimental quantities of alkali are likely 
to be present. Hence, before a pumping plant is installed analysis 
should be made of the soil that is to be irrigated and of the water that 
is to be used. The principal water supply is to be expected from the 
sand and gravel in the valley fill, and, since the average thickness 
of this fill appears not to be great, the amount of available ground 
water is probably not large. Pumping plants of moderate size should 
first be installed, and after these have been successfully operated 
further developments can be made. The most promising field for 
irrigation is not on the low flat, where alkali conditions are likely to 
be encountered, nor on the elevated uplands, where the depth to water 
is great and the supply is generally small, but on intermediate ground, 
where the soil is not strongly impregnated with alkali and where 
water of fairly good quality occurs at moderate depths in the porous 
materials of the valley fill. However, the fact that irrigation of 
small plats is feasible even where the water is far below the surface 
is shown on D. J. Bigbee's ranch, where an abundant yield of vege- 
tables for home use was raised by irrigating with water lifted by a 
windmill from a depth of nearly 200 feet. 

RECONNAISSANCE IN PINOS WELLS BASIN, N. MEX. 
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 

Pinos Wells Basin lies east of Estancia Basin and south of Encino 
Basin (fig. 1), and is comparable in size to the latter. Like the 
others, it has no drainage outlet, the waters of its occasional storms 
flowing from the relatively high tracts near its margin toward the 

a Turbidimeter method, by dilution. 



KT. MEX. 83 

lower ground in the interior. In the low central part there are two 
large salt basins which bear some resemblance to those on the Estancia 
and Encino flats. They have been produced in the same way by 
westerly winds, which have eroded to the ground-water level and 
deposited their loads on the eastern or leeward sides. The peculiar 
susceptibility of the clay in these three basins to yield to wind 
erosion is perhaps to be found in its gypsiferous character. 

With these general resemblances, however, the parallelism between 
this basin and the other .two ends. No ancient shore features were 
found, although search was made for them at all levels. Tracts of 
relatively smooth lowlands adjoin the salt basin on the west, but 
they lack the distinctive flatness that characterizes the ancient lake 
beds. No cliff-like walls such as are formed by the laminated lake 
sediments surround the salt basin. Sediments of this character are 
lacking, though at a few points south of the west basin stratified beds 
bearing some resemblance to the laminated lake sediments were 
observed. The deposits underlying the lowlands in the vicinity of 
the salt basins are of various kinds, among which are found gravel 
and pebbly clay. A pavement of pebbles like that found at the north 
end of the Encino salt basin is spread over the floors of the salt basins 
in many localities. Such a pavement is not found where lake sedi- 
ments alone have been eroded. In some places these residual pebbles 
have accumulated to such an extent as to prevent further wind erosion, 
thus forming miniature monadnocks on the eolian peneplain. 

The wind deposits are different from those in the other two basins. 
They consist more largely of gypsum, and in some places constitute an 
almost pure gypsum sand. The gypsum sand is more granular than 
clay and drifts more readily with the wind; hence a somewhat differ- 
ent wind topography has resulted. The deposits do not hug the salt 
basins so closely and do not produce so much of the crater effect. 
They have been carried farther from the salt basins and cover a 
larger area, forming mounds and hills that more nearly resemble 
ordinary sand dunes, although they differ from these in being more 
irregular and fantastic. Gypsum sand also differs from clay in its 
character as a soil. It supports a scattered growth of small pines, 
which are not found on the clay hills, and appears to produce a better 
growth of grass in some places. 

GROUND WATER. 

Wells are numerous in the dune area and on the low tracts that 
surround the salt basins. Near the basins are dug wells filled to the 
brim with water. Some of these wells are pumped by windmills and 
afford supplies for sheep and other live stock, but the water is so 
highly mineralized that it is not used for drinking or for culinary 
purposes. West of the west basin and at a somewhat higher level 



84 GROUND WATERS IN CENTRAL NEW MEXICO. 

there are springs which yield better water. All the inhabitants of 
the region are said to haul their household supplies from these 
springs. 

Below is given an assay of the Water from the well of Julian Chavez. 
It is a shallow dug well at the margin of one of the salt basins and is 
filled with water virtually to the top. 

Assay of water in well of Julian Chavez, near Pinos Wells, N. Mex. 
[Parts per million.] 

Carbonate (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate (HC0 3 ) 750 

Sulphate (S0 4 ) « 2, 750 

Chlorine (CI) 1, 350 

SMALL INTERMEDIATE BASIN. 

The small basin that lies between Pinos Wells and Encino basins 
has already been mentioned.. It embraces a drainage area of only a 
few square miles. Its central depression is comparatively flat but 
still far above the ground-water level, as is proved by a deep well that 
has been sunk on it. Wind work has been effective here as in the 
larger basins, and has built a distinct clay ridge more than a mile long 
on the east side of the central depression. This depression, like 
nearly all the other wind-formed basins of this region, has a north- 
south elongation. 

NOTES ON WELLS AT VAUGHN, N. MEX. 

East of Encino Basin the surface forms in general an upland that 
slopes toward the Pecos Valley (fig. 1), and in parts of this upland 
there is difficulty in procuring enough water for domestic purposes and 
for the stock. In the village of Vaughn, at the intersection of the El 
Paso & Southwestern Railroad with the Belen cut-off of the Atchi- 
son, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, some deep drilling has been done 
with poor success, and at the time the village was visited, in the sum- 
mer of 1909, the inhabitants depended largely upon water hauled from 
Willard by the railway company. Since that time the pipe line of the 
El Paso & Southwestern Railroad Co. has been extended to Vaughn. 

The following data have been furnished by the Atchison, Topeka, 
& Santa Fe Railway Co.: 

a Turbidimeter method, by dilution. 



NOTES ON WELLS AT VAUGHN, N. MEX. 

Section of the " Epris" well, on the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad. 
[Altitude of surface about 5,935 feet above sea level.] 



85 



Clay and gravel 

Red clay 

Soft lime 1 

Red clay 

White lime 

Red clay 

Hard limestone 

Red clay 

White lime 

Soft sand rock 

Brown sand rock 

White sand rock 

Soft yellow sand rock 

White lime 

Soft white and yellow sand rock. 
Soft yellow sand rock (water) . . . 

Fine white sand rock 

Sandy shale 

Hard ledge of rock 

Red clay 

Clay with sand streaks 

Red clay 

White sand 

Red clay 

White sand 

Light-colored clay 

White sand (water) 

Bottom of hole, June 6, 1906 



Thick- 



Feet. 
70 
50 
10 
20 
30 
46 
4 
30 
30 
36 
14 
30 
32 
13 
345 
71 
19 
47 



158 

120 

75 

6 

34 

8 

12 

20 



Depth. 



Feet. 

70 

120 

130 

150 

180 

226 

230 

260 

290 

326 

340 

370 

402 

415 

760 

831 

850 

897 

897 

1,055 

1,175 

1,250 

1,256 

1,290 

1,298 

1,310 

1,330 

1.355 



Miscellaneous notes on the "Epris" well. 
Depth 
(feet). 
820 Light vein of water. 

829 Vein of water which rose to 800 feet. Yield about 7 gallons per minute. The following 
analysis shows an extremely hard water: 

Parts per million. 

Incrustants 2, 678 

Foaming constituents 

Total solids 2, 807 

880 The water from the depth of 1,330 feet rose to this level. 
900 Light vein of water. 

980 Vein of water which rose to the 900-foot level. 
1,000 Depth of well November 23, 1905. 
1,015 Salt water, 18 gallons in 24 hours. 

1,110 Salt water, 36 gallons in 12 hours. . j 

1,175 Salt water, 90 gallons in 12 hours. 
1,200 Very little water. 
1,330 From this depth is reported an analysis which indicates a strong brine. 

Section of the " Tony" well, on the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad. 
[Altitude of surface about 5,800 feet above sea level.] 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Soil mixed with gypsum and bowlders. 
Limestone 



Red gypsum and lime 

Limestone 

Quartzite sandstone 

Yellow stone, badly fissured . 

Red volcanic clay 

(Small vein of water.) 



Feet. 


Feet. 


190 


190 


23 


213 


18 


231 


20 


251 


60 


311 


450 


761 


40 


801 



86 GEOLOGY AND WATERS OF ESTANCIA VALLEY, N. MEX. 

The following information in regard to the "abandoned well at 
Vaughn on the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad" was supplied 
by F. M. Clough, general foreman, writing under date of December 
16, 1909: 

The well is 854 feet deep; size of hole, 8 inches. The water level is 600 feet from 
the surface. At the time this well was abandoned, about eighteen months ago, the 
water supply was about 600 gallons per hour. I do not have any copy of the analyses 
of this water. However, for your information, I will state that we gave the water a 
heavy treatment with caustic soda, sal soda, and soda ash, and even after this treat- 
ment the water was very bad for engine use, so we could hardly keep it in the boilers. 
It is a very poor quality of water, and one that could not very well be used for 
domestic purposes. 

Surface indications of water are lacking, and the sink holes north- 
west of the village are unfavorable conditions. If further prospecting 
is undertaken, it might be best to drill in the flat west of and some 
distance from the quarry located northwest of the El Paso & 
Southwestern Railroad station. 



INDEX. 



A. 

Page. 

Agriculture, relation of climate to 34 

Alfalfa, adaptability of to semiarid regions . . 62 

Alkali problem, methods of solution of 64-66 

Alkali soils, character and classification of. . . 28-30 
of Estancia Valley, distribution and analy- 
ses of 29-30 

reclamation of 64-66 

Alluvial deposits, character, distribution, and 

origin of 17-18 

Antelope Spring, physiographic features near, 

plate showing 20 

Artesian conditions, conclusions regarding. . . 42-43 

Assays, apparatus and methods used in 47-48 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., drilled 

wells of, tests of water of 74 

well of, near Vaughn, notes on 84-85 

section of 84 

wells of, sections of. _. 13, 15 

B. 

Bars, distribution of 20 

Bases, occurrence of, in solution 53 

Beach material, deposits of 23 

Beach ridges, distribution of 19 

Bicarbonates, dissolved, distribution and ef- 
fect of 52 

Bonsteel, J. A., on alkali soils •. 30 

C. 

Carbonates, dissolved, distribution and effect 

of 52 

Carboniferous rocks, character and distribu- 
tion of 12-15 

Cedarvale, depth to water at 67 

well water of, assay of 71 

Chlorine, dissolved, amount, distribution, and 

effect of 48-51 

dissolved, amount of, diagram showing. . 50 

origin of 50-51 

Clay, deposits of, by wind, plate showing 20 

Clay hills, origin and distribution of 25-27 

relations to salt basins, sections showing. . 25, 26 

typical topography of, plate showing 26 

Clay ridge, plate showing 26 

Cliff forming ancient shore line near Antelope 

Spring, plate showing 20 

Cliffs, distribution of 19 

Climate of Estancia Valley, data regarding. . 30-34 

relation of, to agriculture 34 

Clough, F. M., on El Paso & Southwestern 

R. R . well near Vaughn 85 

Cost of pumping in irrigation, statistics re- 
garding 57-59 

Cretaceous rocks, character and distribution 

of 15 

Crops, value of . . .' 62-63 



D. 

Page. 
Depths to water in Estancia Valley, plate 

showing 38 

table showing 67-70 

Dorsey, C. N., on alkali soils 29,65 

E. 

Eaton, F. M., analyses by 80 

El Paso & Southwestern R. R. well near 

Vaughn, notes on 84-85 

section of 85 

Encino, physiographic features near, plate 

showing ■ 76 

soil at, analysis of 80 

Encino Basin, geologic reconnaissance of 75-82 

groundwater of, occurrence and quality of 80-81 

irrigation in, development of 82 

lake bed in, geologic map of 76 

location and area of 75 

figure showing 7 

physiography of, features of 75-80 

soil of, analysis of 80 

Encino Salt Basin, plate showing 76 

stratified lake sediments in, plate show- 
ing 76 

Eolian action, effects of 25-27 

figures showing 25-27 

Estancia, rainfall at, table showing 31 

rainfall at, relation of to rainfall at Moun- 

tainair , diagram showing 32 

prevailing direction of wind at, table 

showing 33 

well water of, assay of 71 

Estancia Lake, action of water of, on valley 

fill 18-27 

age of 17 

ancient bed of, position and extent of 10 

deposits from, character of 23-24 

shore features of, character and distribu- 
tion of 19-23 

size of 18-19, 22-23 

Estancia Valley, area and location of. 7 

area and location of, figure showing 

climate of, data on 30-34 

depths to water in, map showing 38 

development of 8 

field work in, scope of 8 

geographic relations of 8 

geologic and physiographic map of 

geology of features of 11-27 

physiography of, features of 8-11 

soils of, character of 27-30 

water of, character and source of 34-66 

Estuaries of the ancient lake bed, character 

and origin of 21 

Evaporation, annual, amount of 32 

from ground surface, effect of 34 

87 



88 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Fisher, C. A., on alfalfa 62 

Floods, relation of, to water supply 35 

Fortier, Samuel, on alfalfa 62 

Fuller, P. E., on reservoir construction 60-62 

G. 

Gap in bar near Antelope Spring, plate 

showing 20 

Gas producer plants, advantages of 58-59 

"Gateway" to Estancia Valley, plate show- 
ing 8 

Geology of Estancia Valley, features of 11-27 

Geographic names, note on 74 

Geographic relationsof Estancia Valley, sum- 
mary of 8 

Gravity infiltration ditches, Slichter on 56-57 

Ground water, available quantity of 46-47 

of Encino Basin, occurrence and head of. 80-81 

utilization of, in irrigation 54-56 

Ground-water tab le , re lation of, to salt basins . 40-62 

relation of, to underflow 41-42 

to water supply 38-42 

section showing (figure) 40 

slope of, table showing 41 

H. 

Henry, A. J., on climate of New Mexico 33 

I. 

Igneous rocks, character and distribution of. . . 11-12 
Investigation of ground-water table, method 

of 38-39 

Irrigation, cost and methods of 54-66 

storage of storm water for 54 

systems of, proper type of 55 

utilization of ground water in 54-56 

L. 

Laguna Salina, salt incrustation of, plate 

showing 26 

Lake, work of, on valley fill 18-25 

(See Estancia Lake.) 

Lake flat, plate showing 10 

Lake sediments, open well in, plate showing. . 24 

overlain by wind-deposited clay, plates 

showing 22, 24 

Leakage, effect of, on water supply 37-38 

Lucia, railway well near, section of 15 

railway wells near, tests of water of 74 

spit north of, plate showing 20 

M. 

Manzano Range, structure of 11 

Means, T. H., on alkali soils 65 

Mesa Jumanes, canyon in, plate showing 8 

landsliding in , plate showing 10 

section in escarpment of 13 

Metamorphic and igneous rocks, character and 

distribution of 11-12 

Mountainair, prevailing direction of winds at, 

tables showing 33 

railway well near, section of 13 

tests of water of 74 

rainfall at, relation of, to rainfall at Estan- 
cia, diagram showing 32 

table showing 31 



O. 

Page. 
Otto, rainfall at, table showing 31 

P. 

Physiography of Encino Basin, features of . . . 75-80 

Physiography of Estancia Valley, features of. 8-11 

lake bed, position of 10 

mountain, hills, and mesas, geographic 

relations of 8-10 

salt basins and clay hills, location of 11 

slopes and draws, relations of 10-11 

Pinos Wells, well water near, assay of 83 

Pinos Wells Basin, location and area of, figure 

showing 7 

physiography, geology, and ground water 

of 82-83 

Progresso, depth to water at 67 

well water at, assay of 71 

Pumping, for irrigation, cost of 57-59 

in Arkansas Valley, Kans., cost of 57 

in Estancia Valley, probable cost of 58 

in Rio Grande valley, N. Mex., cost of 58 

Pumping plant and reservoir, plate showing. . 24 

Q. 
Quality of water, investigation ol 47^53 

R= 

Railroads of Estancia Valley, development of. 8 
Rainfall, in Estancia Valley, data regarding. . 30-32 
relative, at Estancia and at Mountainair. . 32 
Recovery of water, means and efficiency of. . . 43-47 
Red loamy soils, character and distribution 

of 27-28 

Reservoirs, construction and utility of 60-62 

Rock formations, character and distribution 

of 11 

conditions affecting artesian wells in 43 

yield of wells in 45-46 

S. 

Salinity in water, cause of 50-51 

Salt basin, clay ridge bordering, plate show- 
ing 26 

cliff surrounding, plate showing 22 

Salt basin, effect of, on ground water table. . 40-41 

origin and distribution of 25-27 

relations to clay hills, sections showing. . 25, 26 

Sand dunes, origin and distribution of 25 

Sandoval Basin or Bolson, geology and water 

of 7-74 

(See also Estancia Valley; particular local- 
ities and subjects.) 

Sandy soils, character and distribution of 28 

Shore features, character and distribution of.. 19-23 
cliffs, terraces, and beach ridges, distri- 
bution of 19 

effect of winds upon 23 

size of 22-23 

spits and bars, distribution of 20-21 

stages shown by 21 

Slichter, C. S., on gas producer plants 58-59 

on gravity infiltration ditches 56-57 

Soils, character and distribution of 27-30 

soluble solids of, per cent of 30 

Solids, dissolved, character and effects of 47, 53 



INDEX. 



89 



Page. 

Spit north of Lucia, plate showing 20 

Spits, distribution of 20 

Springs, relation of, to source and disposal of 

water. . .' 35 

Stanley, well water of, assay of 73 

Storage of water for irrigation, development 

of 54, 60-62 

Storm water, development of storage of 54 

Stratified sediments , deposits of 23-25 

well sections of 24, 25 

Streams, effect of, on valley fill 17-18 

Sulphates, dissolved, distribution and effect 

of 51 

T. 

Temperature, range of, in Estancia Valley 32-33 

Terraces, distribution of 19 

Terraces, of ancient lake bed near Encino, 

plate showing 76 

Topography, relation of, to wind direction, 

figure showing 27 

U. 

Underflow, position and movement of 35 

Underflow, relation of, to ground- water table. 41-42 
Underground reservoir, effect of overfilling. . . 35-37 

V. 

Valley fill, action of wind and water upon . . . 16-27 

age and character of 16-17 

artesian conditions of 42-43 

classification of components of 16 

work of lake upon 18-25 

work of streams upon 17-18 

work of wind upon 25-27 

yield of wells in 43-45 

Vaughn, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. 

well near, notes on 84-85 

El Paso & Southwestern R. R. well near, 

section of 85 



W. 

Page. 

Water, character and recovery of 34-53 

depths to, in Estancia Valley, plate show- 
ing 38 

in Estancia Valley, table showing... 67-70 

disposal of 34-38 

outline showing 38 

evaporation of, from ground surface 34-35 

head of 38-43 

quality of 47-53 

recovery of 43-47 

source of 34-38 

Water of Encino Basin, quality of 81 

Wells , method of testing , plate showing 24 

proper types of 55-56 

water of, assays of 71-73 

yield of, in rock formations 45-46 

in valley fill 43-45 

Whitney, Milton, on alkali soils 28-29 

Willard, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. 

wells at, tests of water of 74 

section of Mesa Jumanes near 13 

section of railway well near 13 

well water of, assay of 71 

Wind , deposits and excavations by 25-27 

deposits and excavations by, effect of, on 

salt basins and clay hills 25-27 

effect of, on lacustrine deposits 23 

figures showing 25, 26, 27 

deposits of clay by , plate showing 20 

effect of, on lacustrine deposits 23 

prevailing direction of, tables showing. . . 33 
relation of direction of to topography, fig- 
ure showing 27 

velocity of, table showing 34 

Wind-deposited clay, lake sediments over- 
lain by, plates showing 22, 24 

Windmills, work done by 59-60 

Y. 
Yield of wells, rate of 43-46 



O 



# 



L'BRARY OF CONGRESS 



029 714 046 2 



